Change from the Ottoman Empire to the Present and Its Reflections in the Field of Music

In the introductory part of this article, the general framework of the research is outlined, Chapter 1 analyses Turkish Music from its beginnings to the Ottoman Empire, Chapter 2 from the foundation of the Ottoman Empire to the reign of Mahmut II, Chapter 3 from the reign of Mahmut II to the Republic, and Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 examine the developments in the Republican period and the effects of these developments on music. In the conclusion section, the conclusions reached are presented. The research was finalised in 2000.

Introduction

In historical research, wars and political events are generally prioritised, cultural history and especially music history receive less attention. However, both the founders of states and those who wage wars are human beings. Man is a cultural being and culture is one of the main determinants of all human structures. The most sensitive element of culture to change is music. Therefore, every kind of human activity has an effect on music. Interaction is a mutual event. For this reason, not only human activities have an effect on music, but also music has an effect on human activities. Some philosophers have even thought that this effect can be used to create an ideal society.

In this research, within the scope of the general framework drawn above, the phenomenon of change from the Ottoman Empire to the present day and its effect on the change of Turkish Music will be analysed. During the examination, the technical aspects of music will be avoided, and the formation, development and change of music genres and the main factors affecting them will be analysed. As a result of the research, an answer will be sought to the question of what are the main factors affecting the change of Turkish Music and what is the relationship between this change and the general change in the structure of the state and society. The study will begin by summarising the historical development of Turkish Music from the beginning until the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards, the development of music in the Ottoman Empire will be analysed, and then the period from the reign of Mahmut II, when radical changes began in the field of music in the Ottoman Empire, to the present day will be analysed by dividing it into certain sections in chronological order. The examination will be finalised in 2000.

In this review, books written on the subject, music and magazine magazines, papers presented at symposiums organised by institutions such as the Turkish History Foundation and the Ministry of Culture, and newspapers were used. In the written sources analysed, it has been observed that there are many studies on the formation, development and change of Turkish Music. However, in these studies, there are not many studies in which the connection between the change in music and the general change is established and this is done in a way to cover all music genres. In this study, the subject will be analysed in a broad perspective by taking this deficiency into consideration.

1. Developments in Turkish Music from the Beginning to the Ottoman Period.

The cultural history of Turks generally begins with the ‘Altaic period’. From 3000 BC onwards, the Altai Turkish culture was also the determinant of the Altai Turkish music and a developed musical culture emerged from the first millennium BC. At first, music, which was probably used mostly in the religious sphere, became institutionalised in time and formed structures such as military music ensembles under the kagan.

When the Turks settled down in the Uighur period, they gave more importance to music and made great progress. By the Karakhanids period (840-1212), new genres and forms began to appear in Turkish music.

In the Ghaznavid Empire (962-1187), Turkish music underwent a multifaceted change. As a result of the interaction with Persian, Arabic and Indian music, certain features of maqamal music began to be used in Turkish music in this period. In the Seljuk period (1040-1157/1308), Turkish music began to form its basic structure, the influence of which will continue until today. From then on, Turkish music continued to develop in basic structures as folk music among the masses in rural areas; nevbet (watch)/mehter music at the state gate and in the army; Sufi music in lodges and orders; and classical music in the mansions of some rulers and prominent families, especially in the palace.

Parallel to these developments in music, many people engaged in music theory also emerged. Farabi (870-950), the first of the well-known ones, wrote the first works on the theory of eastern music. In these works, Farabi dealt with the physical principles of music and made the first detailed researches on instruments. Ibn Sina (980-1037), who came later, was influenced by Farabi in his works. Ibn Sina analysed music in terms of harmony and disharmony of sounds, methods and their relationship with melody. The first important study on the institutions and rules of monophonic music was made by Sefiyüddin of Urmia (1224-1294). Sefiyüddin determined the system of Classical Turkish Music and specified the characteristics of the maqams. Another characteristic of Sefiyüddin is that he developed the technique of notation. The person who left the most lasting impact on Turkish music was Abdülkadir Maragi (1353-1435), who worked on the rules of Turkish music.

2. The Period from the Foundation of the Ottoman Empire to Mahmut II.

In the formation of Turkish music during the Ottoman Empire, the main social strata of nomadic/semi-nomadic, peasant and urban Turkish cultures were decisive. As a result, while Classical Turkish Music developed in the capital and in the big cities close to the centre, Folk Music developed among the people. Tekke Music, another type of music that developed mostly in cities, was also called ‘Sufi Music’.

Although the cities of Bursa and Edirne provided a rich cultural environment as capitals, the main development in the field of music emerged after the conquest of Istanbul. With the conquest of Istanbul by Sultan Mehmet II (Fatih), the foundations of the system called Ottoman peace were laid, and Fatih reorganised the Ottoman Empire in a way to make it a powerful empire. Thus, Istanbul, the capital of the empire, became an important cultural centre in a short time. From then on, Istanbul became the centre where cultural and artistic products were most demanded in the country. This demand created an area of attraction for musicians who were the producers of various musical genres, especially those that suited the tastes of the elite living in the palace and mansions. Thanks to this attraction, powerful musicians of their time and their works began to come to Istanbul.

Different musical genres flowing into the capital from different regions created new syntheses over time. These syntheses flowed back to the whole country and the new music culture produced began to spread from the centre to the periphery. This situation created a common Ottoman culture in the field of music that was effective throughout the country. In other words, the synthesis formed in the centre with the influence of the periphery began to shape the periphery as well.

By the end of the sixteenth century, Turkish music had undergone a radical transformation. The new music was re-established with the synthesis created, and thus a unique Ottoman style emerged, differentiated from the old makam music of the Islamic world. This development was not only limited to Classical Turkish Music, but the same development process also emerged in religious music with the strengthening and expansion of religious institutionalisation. Folk Music, on the other hand, while continuing to develop in its own field, continued to feed and influence this new synthesis and to be influenced by it.

Turkish Music reached the highest level of its development from the 17th century onwards, and some musicians emerged who recorded the works of their period using notation. Ali Ufki, whose real name was Albert Bobowski, and Dimitri Kantemiroğlu of Greek origin notated hundreds of musical works. Notation scribes such as Nayi Osman Dede, his grandson Abdulbaki Nasır Dede and Hamparsun Limonciyan also contributed to the permanence of music with their notations. Many strong composers were also trained during this period. The works of composers such as Post (1630-1694), Itri (1640-1712) and Tab'i Mustafa (1700-1786), who composed in classical form, are still known today.

Military music (mehter), which has a special importance in the Ottomans, started to be played in wars and various ceremonies during the reign of the first sultan Osman. The mehter organisation, which is the main military music institution, developed during the reign of Murat I (1360-1389) with the establishment of janissary troops. This music, unlike other types of Turkish music, has attracted the attention of the West since its emergence. For this reason, years before Western music began to influence Turkish music, the Mehter influenced Western music and even set an example for the military bands established in Western armies.

On the other hand, it is known that some examples of Western music came to Istanbul. There are three documents on this subject. The first document dates back to 1543, during the reign of Kanuni. François I, the king of France, sent an orchestra consisting of the best musicians of his court to the Ottoman palace as a token of his gratitude to Kanuni, who accepted his request for help and sent the Ottoman Navy to the shores of France. The second document is found in Ali Ufki's work Saray-ı Enderun, written in 1665.

In this work, information is given that Murat IV brought a music teacher from Italy, had him study music at the palace and dictated various works. The third document is found in the work ‘La Turquie’ by a traveller named Michael Fabre, published in Paris in 1682. In this book, it is reported that the organs in the churches of Istanbul were taken to Edirne with the permission of the priests to play at the wedding of the sultan's daughter, and that during a wedding festival at the palace during the reign of Kanuni, a musical performance was given by Italian actors.

However, apart from these and similar isolated contacts, there was no deep-rooted interaction with Western music. From the late 17th century onwards, military defeats aroused a feeling among the statesmen that something was wrong and the need to turn their eyes to the West was felt. Thus, efforts were made to make reforms in some areas, especially in the military. Sultan Selim III thought that these superficial changes were not enough, and that a more successful result could be achieved if reforms were carried out not by reforming the existing systems but by a radical change, and as a result, embassies were opened in the capitals of important European states. The embassy delegations travelling to these places sent information about the institutions and cultural activities of these states. Thus, the channels of communication with the West began to increase.

3. The Period from the Period of Mahmut II to the Republic.

Mahmut II abolished the Janissary Corps, reopened the embassies in foreign countries and dismissed the embassy interpreters of Greek origin, who played a key role in foreign relations, and appointed young people of Muslim origin to these positions. Following these, with the contribution of the students who went to the West for education, the channels of communication with Western culture increased even more. Among the innovations made in this period, the most important one in terms of music was the formation of the Mızıka-i Hümayun instead of the Mehter, utilising musicians brought from Europe in order to meet the need for a band suitable for the newly established Western-style army.

When the first musicians were not very successful, Giuseppe Donizetti, who was brought from Sardinia, was appointed as the head of the Mızıka-i Hümayun. Donizetti also assumed the directorship of the music school opened in Üsküdar in 1831. Western music, which developed with Donizetti's intensive and systematic work, soon began to create its own audience. On the other hand, the band's repertoire rapidly expanded, and while marches brought from Italy were initially played, these were later adapted to Turkish and new marches were composed. In 1833, a harmonica school was established in the palace.

Along with the Mızıkayı Hümayun, a tendency towards new searches in Turkish music also emerged. A Turkish music section was established within the fasıl committee of the Mızıkayı Hümayun, bringing together the ney and flute, and in time this section developed a special repertoire consisting of Western music harmonised with peşrev and saz semaileri, light songs, köçekçes and game airs. Bands were established in various army units with the people trained in the Mızıkayı Hümayun, and the taste for polyphonic music began to be instilled in a wider audience. The palace not only brought artists from abroad, but also tried to train its own artists, and various dances were taught in Enderun-u Hümayun and in the wards of the expeditionaries in addition to music and sports performances.

Abdülmecit, who ascended to the throne after Mahmut II, implemented more radical westernisation policies and changed the centuries-old structure of the state and society with initiatives such as the proclamation of the Tanzimat, thus a division emerged in the field of music, just like the duality created by the Tanzimat. While classical Turkish music attracted less and less attention in the palace circle, the influence of Western music increased, and as a result, elite genres of Western music, such as opera and ballet, were introduced to Turkey and became widespread when they attracted attention.

Developments in the economic, political and military structure of the state were as influential in this as the innovations made. During this period, the Ottoman Empire practised a very open economy, and with the new trade agreements made with Western states and the capitulations granted, the Empire became a country exporting agricultural products and raw materials and importing the consumption materials of developed Western industries. As a result, cheaper Western products began to completely dominate the domestic market, which led to the gradual weakening of traditional production. This situation was similarly reflected in the cultural structure and especially in music. While local music genres declined and lost listeners, Western music genres rapidly entered the country and started to meet a larger and larger part of the music demand.

The changes in the social structure brought about by the reforms were also effective in this regard. There had already been foreign embassies in Istanbul since time immemorial. As the state's connections with the outside world increased, wealthy non-Muslims began to send their children abroad for education, and some of them received music education abroad or came into contact with Western music during their studies. As these children returned to the country, there was an increase in the number of people demanding Western music. With the increase in foreign trade, the personnel of foreign companies working in the Ottoman Empire and especially the Levantine population who settled in the country with their families, the audience listening to Western music expanded considerably. When a group of Muslim intellectuals who studied abroad, worked in embassies and returned home, took lessons from foreign officers who came to the country, and thus were influenced by Western culture were added to all these, the audience open to Western music grew even more. On the other hand, with the activities of the Mızıkayı Hümayun, a group of Western music listeners was formed, and some Turkish music composers even composed compositions as a result of this influence.

As a result of the Palace's interest in Western music and the increase in the number of theatre buildings starting from 1839, Istanbul and Izmir became the great art centres of Europe; theatre, opera and ballet companies from different parts of the world came to these cities and gave performances. Following these developments, an Italian named Basko established a theatre in Beyoğlu and performed operas between 1841 and 1842. Mihail Naum, a Syrian Christian, bought this building from him and opera performances continued. From 1844 onwards, some plays were written in Turkish and in 1846, Turkish youth started to perform musical stage plays.

During the reign of Abdülaziz, who succeeded Abdülmecit and who was more conservative, only the band was given importance among the western music studies, other branches were abandoned and the opera studies of Turkish youth were given up. Despite this, interest in Western music continued to increase. This can be seen in the number of musical instruments sold in that period. From 1850 onwards, many music stores established in Istanbul sold various Western instruments (e.g. about 400 pianos a year) and about 6000 sheet music and notebooks. As musical performances and plays attracted more and more attention and became more lucrative, some local performance groups began to be established. When Güllü Agop, who was considered the founder of the Ottoman theatre, received authorisation from the palace on 16 May 1870, the performance of Turkish written plays became his monopoly, and other groups who opposed this monopoly turned to musical plays and tuluat theatre, which led to the emergence of two new movements such as operetta and kanto.

Kanto is a genre that developed from within the people but independently of folk music. It emerged in the 1870s and developed rapidly until the occupation years. It first started in Güllü Agop Theatre with songs added to the plays, and these songs later became the main purpose. However, Kanto took a different form in time when it started to be sung by women wearing short skirts and revealing clothes. Thus, the audience became more of a spectator rather than a listener.

The increase in the number of instruments and the development of operettas to replace tuluat theatre reduced the effectiveness of the canto in the following years, and stage artists turned from theatre to operettas. Operetta is a kind of opera performed for the public. It is a lighter and easier to understand genre than opera. The beginning of the composition of local operettas was an important turning point in the evolution and spread of Western music. With the replacement of cantos by operettas, Turkish music began to gain a new polyphonic genre. The history of operetta in Turkey began with the operetta Arif'in Hilesi (Arif'in Hilesi Operetta) staged by Dikran Çuhacıyan in 1872.

In addition to these, another genre called estudiantina emerged, which was very popular for a while but was completely forgotten afterwards. This genre was born in Galata at the same time as the canto with the effect of the instruments imported by music shops. Estudiantina is the music of young people, wealthy circles and those who aspire to Western life. Performed with instruments such as mandolin, guitar and harmonica, this music, which became very popular after hundreds of records were released, survived for only 20-25 years. Another important music genre that entered our country during the last period of the Ottoman Empire was ‘tango’. Originating in Argentina, tango came to Turkey in the early 1900s. The tango, which emerged in Argentina as a music that gave voice to the poor, was perceived as a more elite music in Turkey.

The proclamation of the Second Constitutional Monarchy in 1908 brought about a rapid change in the Ottoman state and social structure, and as a result, a vibrant musical life emerged in the country. In 1908, the Mızıka-i Hümayun was closed down and new schools and institutions were opened for the development of Turkish music. In 1912, Darül Bedai, a music conservatory, was opened by the Istanbul Municipality; this school was closed in 1914, but Darül Elhan was opened in 1916 for the same purpose. Another important reason for the spread of popular music or the popularisation of certain music genres in the late Ottoman period was the widespread use of records. In 1906, the Turkish distributorship of the Odeon Record Company was opened, the first record company Orfeon was founded in 1911-1912 and the first domestic record factory was established in 1912.

Despite this trend towards Western music and the emergence of new genres, Classical Turkish Music did not lose its effectiveness. It continued to attract interest and be performed in the Mızıkayı Hümayun, dervish lodges and elite circles. Ironically, most of the composers of Classical Turkish Music whose names are known today lived during this period. Of these, İsmail Dede Efendi (1778-1846) and Hacı Arif Bey (1831-1885) are the most recognised composers of the period. While Dede Efendi also composed local compositions influenced by Western music, such as ‘Again a Gülnihal’, Hacı Arif Bey gave a brand new identity to the song form, which had not been used much before, and broke new ground. After Arif Bey, ‘song’ became the form most frequently used by composers, and in this sense paved the way for the popularisation of Classical Turkish Music.

During this period, Classical Turkish Music also began to be criticised. These criticisms concentrated on the point that this music was not Turkish music. These criticisms increased with the development of the Turkism movement and some intellectuals argued that folk music should be processed with Western music to create a new national Turkish music.

The discussions on the processing of local music with Western music forms continued during the occupation period. In 1919, a new experiment in this sense emerged with the establishment of the Istanbul Operetta Company. The Istanbul Operetta Company set aside polyphonic Western music and staged operettas with instrumental accompaniment, and also tried to perform operettas based on Turkish history. During this period, Western music maintained its vitality thanks to the large number of soldiers of the Entente occupying Istanbul and the Russians who fled from Russia to Istanbul after losing to the Bolsheviks. During the occupation years, White Russian and German musicians directed the Istanbul Conservatory.

Another important issue that comes to mind when music is mentioned is music publishing. Music broadcasting started in Europe in Venice in 1841. In Turkey, the beginning of this kind of broadcasting dates back to 1876. The prominent person in this field is Hacı Emin Efendi, the first music publisher known as ‘Notacı’. Emin Efendi published about 5000 Classical Turkish Music and Western music scores until the Republican period. Among the works published by Emin Efendi was a piano piece called ‘Büyük Marş’ (Great March) prepared by Burhanettin Efendi, the eldest son of Abdülhamit.

4. First Period of the Republic (1923-1950).

Aiming to establish a new national state, Atatürk started the necessary reforms after the War of Independence. In order for this state to become a national state, first of all, efforts were made to transform the people into a more homogenous new nation. In order to create a new nation, it was deemed necessary to make the language, history and culture of this nation dominant, sanctified and glorious, and if some of these were not deemed suitable for the desired nation formation, they should be reorganised and even recreated. The Republican cadres, who took decisive steps to advance the Turkish nation, gave special importance to music among the reforms made in the field of culture in accordance with the words of Montesquieu, one of the thinkers who influenced the formation of their intellectual foundations; ‘If a nation's inclination in music is not given importance, it will not be possible to advance that nation.

The idea of making reforms in the field of music was not something new invented in that period. This issue was considered in the last period of the Ottoman Empire, discussed at length and articles were written in various publications. The most widespread opinion in these discussions centred on the point that ‘Classical Turkish Music is not Turkish Music, the real Turkish Music is Folk Music, but its primitive structure does not suit a modern nation, this music should be processed with polyphonic Western music techniques and a modern and national music should be created’. It was Ziya Gökalp who put these different ideas on music on a theoretical basis. In 1923, in his book Principles of Turkism, Gökalp put forward the idea that could be formulated as ‘Folk Music + Western forms’. Atatürk's perspective on music developed more in line with this idea, and thus work was started to create a new music culture.

Firstly, in 1923, the Musiki Encümeni in Istanbul was abolished. Darül-elhan was separated from the Ministry of Education and affiliated to the Governorship of Istanbul, and the remaining elements of the Mızıkayı Hümayun were transferred to Ankara, where the following units were formed: Riyaset-i Cumhur Band, Philharmonic Orchestra and Fasıl Heyeti. In 1924, the compilation of folk music was started. In 1924, the Ministry of National Education distributed compilation cards on which the lyrics of folk songs were to be written to schools, and about a hundred folk songs were collected by this means. In the same year, the School of Music Education was established and students were started to be sent abroad for music education. The first compilation trip was made to Western Anatolia and the collected folk songs were published in 1925 under the title ‘Nağmeleri of Our Country’.

The Istanbul Conservatory also organised four compilation trips to Anatolia between 1926 and 1929 and the folk songs compiled during these trips were published in 14 notebooks under the title ‘Folk Songs’. Within the framework of innovations in the field of music, emphasis was also placed on the development and localisation of Western musical genres such as opera and their institutionalisation. In 1931, the ‘Opera Society’ was founded. On the other hand, folk music compilation tours were continued and in this context, the fifth compilation tour was organised by the Istanbul Conservatory in 1932.

Despite all these efforts, the reforms in the field of music were not very successful. Thereupon, Atatürk started to emphasise this issue with greater importance in his speeches in different places in order to give momentum to these reforms. In this context, he made a speech at the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1934, stating his opinion on the music reform to be implemented. Following this speech, studies in the field of music gained momentum again and a commission was formed to determine the road map to be followed by the music reform.

The most important outcome of the meeting of this commission, held on 26 November 1934 under the chairmanship of the Minister of Culture, was the preparation of a report titled ‘Main Lines of the Turkish State Music and Theatre Academy’ by the State Music and Theatre Academy Commission. In accordance with this report, the broadcasting of Turkish music on radios was banned, with the aim of severing ties with the musical culture of the past in order for the new music to be accepted more quickly. However, after the ban on Turkish Music, the public started to listen to Arabic radios, and the broadcasting ban was lifted two years later. In the meantime, efforts were made to compose western genres such as opera inspired by Turkish melodies, and during the visit of Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran to Ankara in 1934, the first Turkish opera Özsoy, composed by Adnan Saygun and based on Iranian mythology, was performed.

During this period, some musicians were brought from abroad for the creation of national music. Among these, the famous Hungarian musician Lico Amar prepared a report on the importance of radio and conservatories for teaching modern music, and the famous German opera and theatre director Carl Ebert played an important role in the staging of international opera examples in Turkish. German composer Paul Hindemith was also interested in the Musiki Muallim Mektebi and the Riyaset-i Cumhur Orchestra. Hindemith suggested that music schools should be opened in three sections: free music schools (Conservatories), teacher training schools and theatre schools. Hungarian composer Bela Bartok was interested in folk music and participated in a compilation tour organised by the People's Houses in 1936. These trips, called the Eastern European school, were not only for the purpose of collecting local music. This school attributed four other important functions to folk music research besides music. These were the ideology of nationalism, the preservation of traditional music, emphasising the dominant national identity and the use of folk music for educational music.

On the other hand, Ottoman-era troupes continued to perform plays and operettas. Tango began to develop rapidly. One after another, artists who interpreted and composed tango emerged. Orhan Avşar, who studied abroad in 1935-37, and Darvaş, a Hungarian-born artist who came to Turkey in 1938, became the first local pioneers of this genre. Jazz, another Western style of music, entered Turkey in the 1920s. Leon Avigdor of Armenian descent, who was fascinated by this music he listened to in Europe, introduced Jazz to Istanbul with various ensembles he founded until 1933. In the 1940s, jazz ensembles began to be formed one after another and performed in nightclubs.

The new regime, which was established with the reforms made after the establishment of the Republic, exhibited a controlled and restrictive administration under one-party rule until the 1950s. Everything from economy to cultural policies was planned by the state. Since totalitarian regimes were in vogue in Europe during this period, this situation did not cause much internal and external reaction. As a result, there was no major deviation from the state's programme in music culture. Popular music from abroad, on the other hand, is mostly listened to by the elite. Even a genre like tango, which is actually the music of the lower classes, has developed as elite music in Turkey. For this reason, they were not able to be popularised and had an impact on a very small section of the society.

During this period, the majority of the population still lived in villages. Agricultural lands were sufficient to feed the peasant population despite the growing population. Consumption is limited, production is self-sufficient and life is generally stable. However, thanks to widespread education, the number of educated people has increased rapidly. Thanks to the engineers and technicians working in the industrial investments made by the state, the number of technical personnel that the private enterprise can employ in industrial investments has increased sufficiently. In the meantime, with the rising prices of agricultural products in the world during the war, large landowners became rich and a mass of merchants emerged in the cities, who became very rich by taking advantage of the advantages provided by the world war. After the end of World War II, when democracies and liberal economies came to the forefront in the world, these capitalists, who had been following the developments, were no longer contained. They started to raise their voices in favour of a change in the regime and the economic system and gradually started to raise liberal economic and political demands in the political arena.

On the other hand, the developments during the World War II and the increasing threat of the USSR caused the rulers of the state to worry and they started to favour Western countries. This made it necessary to take some democratic steps and loosen the strings of the one-party rule. With this loosening, the music policies of the state, like some of its political and economic policies, began to be criticised. In 1943, the first step back in music policies was taken with the authorisation of Classical Turkish Music education at the Istanbul Municipal Conservatory, and after 1944, the debate on alaturka-alafranga music intensified. These debates were reflected to the Parliament during the budget negotiations in 1945. These debates in the Parliament show that there has been a break in the idea that Classical Turkish Music is foreign.

5. The Democrat Party Period (1950-1960).

After a long period of one-party rule, the Democrat Party, which came to power with the 1950 elections, implemented a liberal economic and social programme. During this period, imports of agricultural machinery increased and great support was given to the agricultural sector, and many investments were made in areas such as industrialisation and construction. As a result of the mechanisation of agriculture, the incomes of the peasants increased and a surplus labour force emerged in the villages, and this surplus labour force started a migration movement towards the cities that started to industrialise. With the newly constructed highways and improved transport facilities, the society became more mobile, thus leading to significant changes in the social and economic structure of the country.

As a result of the loosened system and economic policies open to foreign markets, various western products and popular music genres originating from the west began to enter Turkey freely. The music market that had been established in the Ottoman Empire continued to exist after the foundation of the Republic, but could not grow much due to the low number of record players and radios. After 1950, with the developing market economy, a vibrant music market began to emerge. With the help of developing music and recording technologies, records reached more homes, which led to a breakdown in the state's control over music. In these years, the plan to create music by the state was also abandoned. Thus, foreign music, finding the environment empty and vulnerable, began to enter the country rapidly.

The interest in jazz, which had already arisen in the 1940s with the influence of the Voice of America radio broadcasts, became more widespread in the 1950s with the US military officers who came to Turkey. With the effect of these developments, Celal İnce, the first popular Turkish star, emerged and it was seen that a genre other than tango could be popularised in Turkey. One after another, orchestras started to play in the nightclubs that opened one after another.

In 1955, a rock and roll orchestra was founded in Istanbul by the students of the Naval Academy. This was the beginning of a completely new era. Perhaps for the first time in Turkey, a new genre began to be performed at the same time with the West. All the bands formed at that time interpreted the songs they had learnt by listening to foreign radios. The closer a song was to the original, the more respected it was. In the meantime, the first local compositions, all with English lyrics, began.

Classical Turkish music, which had previously been suppressed, slowly surfaced. However, this music was no longer so classical. The free performance style, the foundations of which were laid by Sadettin Kaynak, turned into a popular style of song performance and composition in Classical Turkish Music. In a short time, it created stars such as Müzeyyen Senar and Zeki Müren. The casino culture that began to emerge in Istanbul popularised free performance. The singing films of Turkish cinema took it even further. Since free performance allowed the individual style of the musician, it created a new area of freedom in composition techniques and performance.

From the 50s onwards, popular culture, accompanied by NATO membership, Marshall Aid and Hollywood films, spread completely into urban life, which was subjected to intense internal migration. In this process, new entertainment styles and music genres emerged. Hollywood stars began to be recognised, samples of American music were played on the radio and imitated by local bands. A balance between alafranga and alaturka had begun to emerge. The print media also supported this development. In some magazines, it is seen that society was consciously trying to be gradually transformed towards western consumption style and popular culture. In these magazines, foreign film stars and popular artists were introduced and the newly formed bourgeoisie was unknowingly educated on how they should live by presenting examples of consumption habits specific to their class.

In this period, practices of using music for political propaganda, which were common in the world, also began to be seen. However, these were records containing the DP Anthem and Adnan Menderes' speeches at rallies, and were not yet used in the squares.

6. The Period between 1960-1980.

During the DP's third term in power, investments slowed down as problems began to arise in the repayment of foreign debts and new foreign loans could not be found. This situation had negative effects on the economic situation of the people. As a result of these developments and the student movements in universities, social opposition to the government increased. Thereupon, the government tried to suppress the dissatisfied people by taking very harsh measures. Now, the government had become so rigid that it was even worse than the single party period. This tension mobilised the Unionist spirit within the army and the government was overthrown by a military coup.

After the coup, a planned economic system was introduced. In this context, the State Planning Organisation was established and five-year development programmes began to be prepared. These programmes included a number of decisions regarding the protection and development of Turkish music. In the 1950s, foreign music was imported from abroad without any changes and sung in the same language and without any interpretation, but this situation changed in the 1960s. Local genres began to emerge in the form of writing lyrics to foreign songs or interpreting folk songs with Western techniques. As a result, brand new popular genres emerged and a plural music image emerged. A stone record released during this period marked a new turning point for popular Western music in Turkey. Erol Büyükburç, Turkey's first cult singer, released his own composition Little Lucy on vinyl in 1961. This record reached a sales figure that only foreign singers had reached until then. Erol Büyükburç became the first pop singer to go on a big tour between 17 April and 5 June 1961, opening up Anatolia.

Meanwhile, stone records gave way to the more easily produced 45's. With the emergence of 45's and the companies offering various payment options, the record market experienced a revival. In 1962, Barış Manço, a student at Galatasaray High School at the time, produced the first Western music 45 in Turkey. The title of the 45 was ‘Twistin USA/The Jet’. In 1963, the trend of arranging folk songs on an orchestral basis began to manifest itself. The folk song ‘Black Train’, arranged by the Kentet Dogo Orchestra in the rhythm of the chacha, became a big hit. Kara Tren was the first folk song arrangement in Turkey in Western style. As new genres rapidly emerged and developed, a new genre emerged from the remnants of Classical Turkish Music, defining itself as Turkish Art Music. The most distinctive aspect of this music was that it minimised the basic elements of classical music and popularised the melodies by simplifying them.

During these years, local music began to develop in two different and new musical styles. One of these was Anatolian Pop and the other was Arabesque. Anatolian Pop was the product of a group of young musicians, mostly influenced by the youth movements in Europe, trying to establish a connection between the local music of Anatolia and Western popular music genres. On the other hand, musicians such as Orhan Gencebay began to compose new compositions in a more Middle Eastern style. This style, based on the maqams used in local music and Classical Turkish Music, became Turkey's first civil and urban music movement called Arabesque. The first architects of Arabesque Music are names such as Orhan Gencebay, Arif Sağ and Özer Şenay. Even though the singers and composers were people with no political attitude, this music genre was perceived as a political message and was subjected to repression. TRT did not broadcast this music genre. But despite this, Arabesque continued to be in high demand from the public.

In the early 1960s, Turkish lyrics were written to famous foreign songs and these songs began to be played and sung as they were originally. This genre was called arrangement. Aranjman was quickly adopted because it sang the works of famous foreign singers in Turkish. Aranjman was a system that gave importance to the singer and easily created stars. However, this genre only created singing stars. Since it was a Western genre, Aranjman easily overcame TRT's broadcasting control and TRT named it Turkish Lyrics Light Music. The most important arrangement produced in that period is the song ‘Bak Bir Varmış Bir Yokmuş’ (Look, There Is One There Is None), which was created by Fecri Ebcioğlu, one of the disc jockeys of Istanbul Radio, by writing Turkish lyrics to the song ‘C'est ecrit dans le ciel’. Later, Ajda Pekkan, one of the best representatives of this style, became the first ‘superstar’ of Turkey.

During these years, the music media in Turkey also started to develop. Ses, Müzik Ekspres, Melodi and Diskotek, which were among the important magazines of the 60s, were the most important music magazines that started to be published. In the 1960s, Hayat Mecmuası also increased its music-related publications. As of the early 70s, Hey, the most important music magazine of that period, emerged. In these magazines and magazine supplements published by newspapers, almost everything about the domestic and foreign music movements of those days and the state of music began to be written and discussed. In the meantime, the lyrics of the famous Western pop songs of the period were also published. Newspapers began to give more space to topics related to music in their magazine supplements. As a result of these efforts of newspapers and magazines, concerts attended by large crowds began to be seen in Turkey, as in the West.

The first half of the 1960s is also important in terms of the transformation of orchestras into groups in Turkey. In this period, many bands emerged not only in Istanbul but also all over Anatolia. One of the most important reasons for the emergence of these bands was the law enacted as a result of the initiatives of the Musicians' Union established after the military coup. With this law, foreign orchestras were obliged to work with at least one local orchestra.

In 1964, a new style emerged in Turkey with Tülay Gürman's Burçak Tarlası. In fact, folk song arrangements had been made before. However, those works were closer to the Western sound. Burçak Tarlası can be considered as an arrangement of a folk song that is faithful to the melody. Anatolian Pop, which can also be defined as the reinterpretation of local melodies with Western instruments, gained momentum at this time. The years 1962-1965 were also the period when the important names of Anatolian Pop were either new to music or newly recognised.

In 1965, the Golden Microphone contest organised by Hürriyet Newspaper started. This contest, which attracted great interest throughout the country, introduced Western music bands to the provinces. The most important aspect of the contest was that the winner was determined by the public. Cem Karaca and Erkin Koray, two of the most important musicians who were honoured by the Golden Microphone, paved a new path for popular Western music with their works in the late 60s. Bora Ayanoğlu and Timur Selçuk, who emerged at this time, began to break the dominance of Arrangement with their compositions.

In 1968, the mass movements that spread all over the world began to have an impact in Turkey as well. The music genres that entered and settled in the country in the 1960s, the musicians who produced and performed them, and the music industry and press had begun to become stronger and institutionalised. This institutional structure started to react to developments both in the world and in the country. It became organised, incorporated, competed with each other and gradually became politicised and polarised. This period was also the beginning of the use of music in election squares to convey political messages. For the first time in the 1965 general elections, an election song was used by the Workers' Party of Turkey (TİP) in election squares. Competition had gained more importance in political communication. In the 1973 elections, election music was used even more intensively.

In the 1970s, the era of records came to an end and tape recorders and cassettes took their place. Following this, cassette shops started to open everywhere. While this increased cassette sales, the mixed cassettes filled in these shops had a negative effect on sales later on. Another important development was the establishment of music production companies in Turkey in the 1970s. ŞAT Production, established in 1972, was the first production company in Turkey. ŞAT was also instrumental in organising the Topluiğne Song Contest and breaking the control of TRT. The 70s are the years when pop music becomes really popular. However, the escalation of political movements, changing balances and the strengthening of social opposition also affected music. Under the influence of this environment, parties gave more importance to musical propaganda in the 1977 elections. While the CHP used Ali Rıza Binboğa's famous song ‘Yarınlar Bizim’ (Tomorrow is Ours) in the election squares, the Justice Party had Öztürk Serengil change the folk song ‘Zühtü’ (Zühtü) to ‘Milliyetçi Zühtü’ (Nationalist Zühtü). In addition to party music, the discourse of music itself became more politicised. Famous voices of pop music also began to produce songs with social messages.

Another important element in terms of music in these years was the casinos. The casinos began to offer a full programme of songs and entertainment and to appeal to a large segment of the population with their affordable prices for the middle class. By organising family matinees, these casinos also functioned to spread the habit of listening to music and having fun with music to a wide base. This period was also a time when crises were a part of life and suffering was experienced. Towards the end of the 1970s, the country's economy deteriorated. This further fuelled labour protests and political unrest. These protests and political tensions increased political violence. The turmoil in the country led the society to despair and pessimism. This mood was also reflected in music. The style shaped by names such as Âşık Ali İzzet Özkan, Âşık Mahsuni and Âşık İhsani became the spokesperson of the left-wing. On the other hand, right-wing groups could not develop an effective protest style as they put themselves in a position that protected the system and the state.

In addition to these, Arabesque, a rebellious music genre, which is claimed to have been created and nurtured by the unplanned migration from villages to cities and the process of squatting, and to have contributed to the strengthening of economic crises, became more widespread. This music also expresses distress and has a discourse of rebellion, but this rebellion is not against the system, but against the fate that is not visible. The cause of troubles is either the catastrophe, fate or the Creator. Complaints and rebellion are against these intangible beings. In this respect, Arabesk, which pretends to rebel, is actually submissive, passive. On the one hand, it rebels against fate, but it also accepts its fate. Since it cannot present problems concretely, its problems are also unsolvable.

By the late 1970s, the market was dominated by the genres mentioned above. Classical works are not sung much except for some radio programmes.

7. The Period Between 1980 and 2000.

Towards the end of the 1970s, political movements in Europe lost power, consumer culture and conservatism came to the fore, and conservative and liberal discourses began to dominate politics in many countries. In Turkey, a military coup paved the way for these developments. After the 12 September coup, the leaders of political parties were arrested, parties were closed down and former politicians were banned from participating in elections, thus paving the way for conservative and liberal groups with no ideology. After the military coup, most of the singers who made political music fled abroad. When these singers disappeared, the field was left to Arabesk, which had no problems with the state or the system and attributed everything sad to fate/fate.

In 1983, the Motherland Party (ANAP), which came to power through elections, came to the fore as the main factor shaping the events of this period. Political communication with the masses through music reached its highest level with the Özal years. Özal, who tried to portray himself as a popular leader, utilised the most popular songs of the period in his election campaigns.

Özal's coming to power marked the beginning of a new era, the infrastructure of which had been prepared during the military administration in which he also served. ANAP mainly encouraged industry, tried to implement an economic policy open to foreign markets and based on exports, and tried to create a strong bourgeoisie in the western sense. This situation naturally brought about new changes. With the effect of the changes in this period, migration from the village to the city accelerated and thus, the slums in the cities started to grow even more. This rapid change in the social and economic structure forced the cultural structure to change and paved the way for the development of two genres in the field of music. One of these is Arabesque and the other is Rock music.

Until the Özal period, Arabesk was looked down upon by the state elites and even banned by the government, but Arabesk was still a widely listened to music. As soon as Özal came to power, he ensured that this music, which was widespread in the society, was also respected at state levels. However, Arabesk songs, which are full of pessimism, are not a very desirable structure for Özal's neoliberal understanding of economy. For this reason, with the support of Özal, attempts were made to create painless arabesque, but this attempt, which had no infrastructure and was made by groping, was not accepted by the society.

Rock music, on the other hand, presents a very different picture. In the USA, the birthplace of this music, Rock is a continuation of genres such as blues, jazz and boggies and is a continuous movement. In Turkey, on the other hand, Rock started to form at the end of the 1960s and has always marched along with Pop. For this reason, the audience of rock music in Turkey consists of a very different group of people. In the USA, rock music listeners are generally the children of labourers and unemployed people from the lowest stratum, whereas in Turkey they are generally the children of the middle class and bourgeoisie. While rock music in the West is an aggressive and systematic genre due to the social and economic structure of its audience, the situation is very different in Turkey.

Although there was a little bit of opposition to the system in Rock in the 1970s, this disappeared in the 80s. In 1982-83, an audience that listened mostly to old foreign rock songs emerged. In addition to this, punk and heavy metal bands started to appear, albeit to a lesser extent. There is no dominant ideology among this new Rock youth in Turkey. For this reason, their political discourse did not go beyond writing ‘fuck the system’ left and right. Most of the people who listen to this music are normal people who, like other young people, go to school, study at a university, dream of finding a good job and starting a family. These are young people who are not affected by a social problem and express it through music, but who are striving for independence against the pressure and control exerted on them by their families.

Meanwhile, just like Özal's painless Arabesk, TRT has launched a new initiative in the field of art music. This initiative was a different attempt to reorganise local music in the style of western music in order to meet the demand of the middle and upper classes who wanted to listen to Turkish music. This new genre, the first examples of which emerged with Yıldırım Gürses' “Hoş Sada”, was called “Polyphonic Turkish Light Art Music”. However, as Yıldırım Gürses was not followed by other successful followers, this genre lost its influence in a short time.

In this period, as a result of the liberal economy implemented under the Özal administration, the traditional Turkish people, who had been cultivated with religious and national values for centuries, rapidly turned into a homoeconomicus. Thus, the erosion of the values system of the society caused differentiation and alienation between the younger generation, which adapted to the new system more quickly, and the older generation. This change was soon reflected in the field of music. Alienation in music, on the other hand, has been realised through the complete commodification of music as a result of the development of the music industry. The developing music industry has had the power to direct society over time. Thanks to its role of directing the society, music started to convey the mentality of the political power. In this period, the emergence of music products with monotonous rhythm, fast tempo, lyrics are ignored, produced fast and consumed fast, and non-permanent music products is based on these reasons. In a sense, this alienation was also supported by state policies. When we look at the Five-Year Development Plans prepared in this period, it is seen that no important issues related to the field of music were mentioned and music was almost excluded from the state's sphere of interest.

Nevertheless, some original works were produced in this sterile environment. However, the real explosion in Pop music in this period was made by Mazhar-Fuat-Özkan. With the song ‘’Ele Güne Karşı Yapayalalnız‘’ the group became very famous in an instant. After the success of MFÖ; a group explosion took place. Bulutsuzluk Özlemi, who gained an important momentum in the field of protest music with ‘’Uçtu Uçtu‘’, became the pioneer of the future Turkish Rock explosion. In 1991, Kayahan's cassette ‘’Bir Yemin Ettim‘’ was the first example of a new hybrid genre. The ‘Özgün Müzik’ (Original Music) artists who emerged later also followed Kayahan's method. Ferhat Tunç and Ahmet Kaya succeeded in appealing to large masses by using arabesque tunes in their political music.

As can be seen, music in the 1990s was characterised by experiments in which genres intertwined with each other. Perhaps this situation is the reflection of the mood of Turkey, which was overwhelmed by the blockage caused by the centre-right policies of those years, on the music as a result of a new search that started over the views of the existing ideological parties. However, this search would continue for some time. In this search, the era of pop songs, which started with ‘Abone’ sung by Yonca Evcimik in 1991, started to blow a new storm and started to push aside all other genres. New songs and singers emerged one after another, and the new superstar Tarkan made a name for himself in this period. In this period, those who said they were doing Anatolian Rock with folk songs reappeared and the Anatolian Pop movement of the 70s became fashionable for purely commercial purposes.

In fact, in music, as in politics, rather than finding a new alternative, a mixed picture emerged, which was different in form but not in content, by mixing what had been available for a long time in a melting pot. The structure of these songs is simple, the words are plain and easy to remember. They are like the products in fast-food restaurants where one enters to appease his hunger when he cannot find a suitable restaurant. The product made with a simple and quickly prepared ingredient is flavoured with some sauces and put on the market. For this purpose, proverbs or idioms, and sometimes even slang, are generally used in songs and these are constantly repeated in the choruses. Another element that fulfils the role of sauce here is Classical Turkish Music, which is increasingly being incorporated into pop music. The common maqams of this genre were widely used in light music songs. The music that was introduced and popularised as Turkish Pop Music in the 1990s was in fact a synthesis of the modes and procedures of Classical Turkish Music with Western and Turkish instruments.

Beginning in 1991, private television channels and private radios established in 1992 also had a significant impact on the development of music. While private radio and television channels were expected to create a new movement in the field of music, on the contrary, they dealt a major blow to Turkish music. These channels broadcast the poorest quality works of the newly emerging pop and arabesque, whose quality was gradually declining. In 1994, the channels that started to be established and broadcast only music started to broadcast songs accompanied by a music video, and the physical characteristics of the singers and the meaningless dance-like movements of the models in the music videos, which smelled a bit of eroticism, became more important than the sound and music quality of the songs. In this situation, works with very low musical value and singers and composers who became famous overnight by singing these works became popular. The pop storm dominated the market to such an extent that even the old arabesque singers started to sing pop songs or Arabesque songs that had become more pop.

In the 90s, the deterioration in the country's economy, the rapid erosion in the social and cultural sphere, and the environment created by the increasing terrorism on the one hand, caused the erosion of the basic principles that had not yet disappeared in society. Following the softening of ideologies, the younger generations, who had long been apoliticised, became more apathetic. In fact, this situation has been supported by the implantation of the consumer culture pumped through radio and television. The youth, which is more of a consumer, has begun to turn towards an idea that rejects both the wealth created and blessed by liberal policies and the traditionalism that cannot resist it. This youth, which says ‘I came to this world to live. The important thing is not to submit to anything.’ is like the Grunge youth of the West. This movement, which emerged in the USA in the form of unbranded, rough clothing, dirty and unkempt hair, army boots, lumberjack shirts and piercings, started to be effective in Turkey in the summer of 1993. However, unlike in the West, the followers of this movement are mostly young people studying in private colleges and Anatolian High Schools. While the main ideas of the grunges in the West are feminism, anti-imperialism and anti-militarism, the grunges in Turkey are not even aware of these. The only thing they have in common with other grunges in the world is boredom. During this period, there was another large group of people who were studying at universities and thought of turning the corner in a short time as soon as they graduated. They usually listened to tecno and pop.

While the political, economic and cultural changes of the 1990s led to these developments in music, these emerging and rapidly popularised music genres also affected the conditions that gave rise to them as a form of recycling. This is most clearly seen in the field of politics. For example, in the 1990s, the political communication race of Mesut Yılmaz's ANAP and Tansu Çiller's DYP was based on popular culture and popular songs. On the other hand, these parties started to lose their effectiveness as rapidly as the songs they used.

The Welfare Party, on the other hand, started to use anthems that appealed to the provinces and suburbs in metropolises, which were more affected by the problems. With the rise of the Welfare Party and the influence of similar movements in the world, some individuals and groups claiming to be Islamic Pop or Rock emerged, but they could not become widespread due to the traditional structure of the society they tried to rely on. On the other hand, singers with a message of secularism were also popular with the circles that were concerned about these developments, and the new arrangement of the 10th Year Anthem became a closing part of all kinds of activities of secularist groups.

The Welfare Party emerged as the first party in the 1995 elections. In the 1999 elections, which were held after the resignation of the Welfahyol government as a result of the 28 February process, two parties with an ideology such as MHP and DSP emerged as strong. In this election, the Democratic Left Party (DSP)'s hit song was “Gözün Aydın Türkiye”, the lyrics of which were written by Bülent Ecevit. The MHP, on the other hand, entered the elections with Mustafa Yıldız Doğan's song ‘Baş koymuşum Türkiye'min yolu’. Both of these songs were able to influence large masses with their hopeful messages on the issues that the country needed at that time. Although these two parties seem to be on different political wings, their common characteristic is that they are both nationalist. The rise of nationalism was also reflected in music. Even pop singers became quite nationalist due to the terrorism that peaked in this period. In one ceremony, Ahmet Kaya was even forced to leave the stage by pop singers throwing a knife and fork at him because of a speech loaded with divisive meanings.

However, when these parties and these rising ideologies could not solve the problems the country was facing, Turkey would enter the 2000s pregnant with brand new developments in terms of music as in every sense.

Conclusion

As can be understood from the foregoing, music is a cultural product that is produced and consumed according to the needs of society. The production and consumption of this product, like other products, is determined by the demand. Demand is determined by the economic, social and cultural structure and living conditions of the people living in the country. As in every society, the social and economic structure of the Turks consists of many layers, music has also shown a diversity in accordance with this structure.

Turkish music, which was formed according to the nomadic lifestyle in Central Asia, began to experience a division as the society moved westwards and came into contact with settled cultures. The ruling class gradually broke away from the music of the people and started to listen to the newly formed Classical Turkish Music, while the music of the people living in the countryside continued to develop within its own conditions. Thus, two main categories of Folk Music and Classical Turkish Music emerged, and religious organisations followed whichever of these lifestyles they appealed to.

The Ottoman Empire began to form a certain social and state order from its foundation, the state was reorganised during the reign of Fatih, and this newly organised structure shaped music according to its own economic, social and administrative characteristics. Until the reign of Mahmut II, due to the closed structure of the state, this music developed more under the influence of internal factors and in a natural way. After the reign of Mahmut II, the structure of the state and its institutions changed, the permeability of borders increased, imported products increased and the new system created new types of people.

The Mızıkayı Hümayun, which was initially established for purely military purposes, laid the foundations for the establishment of Western music in the country with the contribution of talented Western musicians brought to the institution. The Tanzimat period, which followed, brought about a dual structure in music as well as in the state structure. The increasing demand for Western music by the palace and the elite immediately created a defensive reaction in Classical Turkish Music, the old music of the elite. For example, composers of this genre composed some compositions influenced by the Western style in order to survive. In addition, Western-style products were performed with Turkish instruments and Turkish maqams. When popular genres of Western music began to enter the market, Classical Turkish Music underwent a transformation in order to compete with these genres and began to popularise itself.

The nationalism movement that developed after the Constitutional Monarchy was also an important factor affecting music. However, this time music began to change not only in composition and performance, but also in the intellectual dimension. The ideas on the nationalisation of music, the infrastructure of which was prepared during this period, were later put into effect by the state in the Republican period. As a result of these ideas, which emerged by synthesising the idea of westernisation with nationalism, the creation of a national music came to the agenda. With the studies carried out in this direction, music developed in two directions in accordance with the view that can be summarised as ‘Let's take the technique of the West but not its culture’, which was put forward throughout the entire modernisation process. On the one hand, the classical versions of Western Music were tried to be popularised through works composed in Turkish, while on the other hand, Folk Music works were tried to be compiled and rearranged in Western style with polyphonic music technique.

However, despite these attempts by the state, Folk Music and Classical Turkish Music continued to exist in areas of society outside of state control. In 1950, when economic and cultural policies changed along with the form of government, a rapid development emerged in two directions. The first of these was the opening of the borders to foreign goods, through which Western popular music began to enter the country, and the second was the popularisation of local music genres by lightening them in a way that they could compete with Western popular genres and adapt to new consumption conditions. After that, music started to be influenced faster and more intensely by the events occurring both in the world and in the country due to the impact of technological developments such as the increase in transportation and communication opportunities and the broadcasting of radio, record player, tape recorder and television. The policies implemented by the state, industrialisation, coups, ideologies and other issues affecting the structure of society have also had a directing effect on the development of music.

An important point that draws attention in this process is that as soon as foreign genres entered the country, but this time outside the control of the state, they interacted with Turkish music genres and produced syntheses in Western style but with local motifs. This situation may have arisen because commercial music companies, which have become widespread over time and make money from music, realised that localisation was inevitable for the mass popularisation of foreign genres, or it may have resulted from the strong structure of local genres, which have developed and rooted in the identity of the society for centuries, creating an attraction.

For this reason, when the music movements produced by the industrial society of the West, which broke away from tradition, entered Turkey, they either immediately began to hybridise with local genres, or they formed ghettoised structures in a social and cultural environment very different from the places where they were born, which were imitated in form but were unaware of the philosophy of the original. The power of local genres is also evident from the fact that, as the 2000s approached, the forms of Classical Turkish Music merged with all popular songs, and directed their development. In addition, these local musics have been able to maintain their existence as original by showing some changes within their own forms.

After these evaluations, it can be said that all kinds of innovations such as migration, settling down, state policies, ideologies, industrialisation, changes in state institutions, etc., which cause structural changes in society, have also caused a change in music, and developments in technology have contributed to this change in an accelerating way. However, despite all kinds of pressure, it has not been possible to eliminate the local music genres that have been living in the memory of the society for a very long time. Like a living organism, this culture has struggled to survive, changed, developed and adapted to new conditions in order not to disappear.

On the other hand, it is also seen that the state has a great influence on the development of music. However, it is not possible to create a music whose boundaries are drawn by the state. Every change, no matter how much it is tried to be prevented, causes music to change according to its own natural laws. From this point of view, it can be seen that the cliché ‘Let's buy the technique of the West, but not its culture’ has no validity. Because a technique taken from outside necessarily brings with it a cultural element appropriate to the conditions created by that technique.

In conclusion, we can say that music is like a living organism. As changes occur in the flora in which it lives, it adapts to new conditions by undergoing changes in order to survive. When new species enter this habitat, old species struggle against them and transform themselves for this purpose. Domestic and foreign genres that can survive within the structure approach each other in time, hybridise, and sometimes pave the way for the emergence of brand new genres. Thus, many music genres with different characteristics can live in society at the same time and continue to influence each other. In other words, music is constantly evolving under the force of internal and external dynamics and this process of change continues like an endless spiral.

SOURCES:

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