The F-104 Starfighter in the Turkish Air Force’s Inventory (Part 5)
Just as in other NATO member states, the introduction of the F-104 Starfighter aircraft into the Turkish Air Force’s inventory from 1963 onwards marked the beginning of one of the most challenging, proud and unforgettable periods in our military aviation history.
The cover image shows a Turkish Air Force F-4E Phantom II, F-5A Freedom Fighter and F-104G Starfighter all in the same frame. The image was produced by Gemini.
In this series of articles examining the F-104 Starfighter, I have endeavoured to present you with a comprehensive overview—in full detail—ranging from the design philosophy shaped by the genius of Clarence ‘Kelly’ Johnson, through the technological developments of the Cold War years that saw the aircraft become the ‘manned missile’ of the skies, to the operational roles of its various variants and its military career across the globe. This research process, in which I scrutinised the aircraft’s aerodynamic limits and its technical evolution in aviation history, inevitably led me to one of the locations where this legend was utilised most intensively and dynamically. This extraordinary flight characteristic, which I have examined in my series of articles from both technical and tactical perspectives, opened the door to one of the most challenging, proudest and most unforgettable periods in our military aviation history when it entered the inventory of the Turkish Air Force in 1963.
The diagram above illustrates the aircraft’s global evolution; the Turkish Air Force has operated only the F-104G, TF-104G, RF-104G, CF-104, CF-104D and F-104S variants from this family.
Section I: Initial Procurement, the MAP Process and the North Atlantic Transition
The Military Assistance Programme (MAP) and Pre-Delivery Processes
The transition to supersonic flight and modern fire-control radar systems capable of operating in all weather conditions in the Turkish Air Force’s inventory was marked by the procurement of the F-104 Starfighter aircraft. This process, one of the Turkish Air Force’s most comprehensive modernisation initiatives of the jet age, was shaped within the framework of Cold War-era military alliance dynamics and was primarily carried out under the Military Assistance Programme (MAP), funded by the United States of America.
Prior to the main procurement schedule, which officially began in 1965–1966, a preliminary delivery was made to the Turkish Air Force’s inventory. On 17 May 1963, following the allocation of 17 F-104G aircraft to the 144th Jet Squadron Command, based at the 4th Main Jet Base Command in Ankara, the Turkish Air Force was introduced for the first time to operational flight capability at twice the speed of sound (Mach 2) and an integrated fire control radar.
Following this pioneering adaptation phase, a larger-scale and systematic procurement process was implemented between 1965 and 1966 under the MAP programme. As part of this, the first main batch of 36 aircraft, manufactured by the American aerospace firm Lockheed and its licensed Canadian manufacturer Canadair, was incorporated into the inventory. The package in question comprised 32 single-seat F-104G fighter variants and four two-seat, dual-control TF-104G trainer variants, designed to ensure the standardisation of flight training.
The transport of the aircraft to Turkey via the North Atlantic was carried out by sea, as required by the circumstances of the time. The Starfighter fuselages, shipped from production facilities in the United States and Canada to ports, were transported to the Port of İzmir by military cargo ships; there, they were unloaded and taken to the assembly areas, and following test flights, they flew to their operational bases at Mürted. This transfer mechanism not only expanded the Turkish Air Force’s tactical inventory but also paved the way for a new military doctrine in the fields of high-altitude navigation and supersonic flight physiology.
Mürted 4th Main Jet Base Command: The Transition from the F-102 Delta Dagger to the F-104 and the Air-to-Air Interception Concept
The 141st and 142nd Squadrons, based at the 4th Main Jet Base Command at Mürted—designated as the main base for the F-104 Starfighter aircraft—became the centres where the Turkish air defence philosophy underwent a fundamental transformation. Prior to the F-104s entering service, the all-weather interceptor (AWX) requirements of these squadrons – and of the Turkish Air Force in general – were met by the F-102 Delta Dagger aircraft. The F-102A was a specialised platform equipped not only with six Falcon (AIM-4G) radar- and infrared-guided missiles carried on rails within its internal weapons bay, but also with 24 2.75-inch FFAR rockets designed to destroy Soviet heavy bombers attacking in formation. The F-102 doctrine was based on a concept utilising the aircraft’s semi-automatic fire control system—which was highly advanced for its time—under the guidance of Ground-Controlled Interception (GCI) stations, but focused on linear firing trajectories rather than manoeuvres.
F-102 Delta Dagger and F-104G Starfighter Comparison Table
Parameter / Capability F-102 Delta Dagger (AWX Concept) F-104G Starfighter (New Air-to-Air Interception Concept)
Maximum Speed Mach 1.25 (Mach 0.95 with external tanks) Mach 2.0+ (Continuous supersonic flight)
Climb Rate Limited and sluggish climb performance 15,000 metres per minute (Enormous kinetic energy)
Primary Armament: 6x Falcon (AIM-4) & 24x FFAR in-fuselage; AIM-9 Sidewinder & M61 Vulcan on wingtips/under the fuselage
Avionics / Radar: Hughes Fire Control Radar; Autonetics NASARR; F-15A Multi-Purpose Radar
Manoeuvrability: Stable turns thanks to the wide delta-wing configuration; razor-thin wings, wide turn radius, high stall speed
The transition from the F-102 to the F-104 Starfighter transformed the air-to-air intercept concept from the logic of a static missile platform into a dynamic, extremely fast reaction capability based on energy management. With its external fuel tanks fitted, the F-102’s speed dropped below the supersonic threshold, rendering it inadequate for intercepting fast Soviet penetration aircraft. The F-104G, on the other hand, thanks to its powerful General Electric J79 turbojet engine and aerodynamic design, offered a climb rate of 15,000 metres per minute and a speed of Mach 2+, thereby reducing scramble response times to a critical level.
However, this high kinetic performance meant that, due to the F-104’s razor-thin, short and slatless wing design, it lacked a tight turning radius; and although it remained stable at high speeds, its manoeuvrability in close air combat—or, in other words, dogfights—was compromised. This situation has shifted the Turkish Air Force’s interceptor philosophy towards a tactical approach focused on high-speed ‘hit-and-run’ operations and interceptors capable of carrying out interception missions without being detected by radar, rather than close-range turning engagements with the target.
Strategic and Geographical Assessment of the Deployment of the 9th Main Jet Base Command in Balıkesir
Another key base where the F-104G and RF-104G models were deployed was the 9th Main Jet Base Command in Balıkesir. The geographical positioning of the 191st and 192nd Squadrons stationed at Balıkesir holds significant strategic value when examined against the geopolitical risk maps of the Cold War era. Balıkesir played a key role both in holding the western defence line against a potential Warsaw Pact threat from the Balkans and in safeguarding airspace sovereignty over the Aegean Sea.
The deployment of Mach 2 Starfighters to this base has optimised reaction times—measured in seconds—in the event of a potential escalation over the Aegean, to the advantage of the Turkish Air Force. Furthermore, thanks to the tactical photo-reconnaissance capability operated by the 192nd Squadron, the early aerial detection of military movements in the Balkans and the Aegean basin, along with a continuous flow of high-altitude intelligence, has been ensured. This deployment in Balıkesir has formed an early defence shield for air bases deep within Western Anatolia, whilst becoming one of the key parameters in the deterrence calculations of Turkish and NATO planners for the region.
Section II: “The World’s Most Heterogeneous Fleet” – Second-Hand Inventory Transferred from Allies
The Turkish Air Force, having become the world’s second-largest operator of the F-104 after Italy, managed a vast and complex transfer ecosystem comprising approximately 390 to 433 aircraft. Comprising nine combat squadrons and an Operational Conversion Unit (OCU) – often referred to as the Combat Readiness Transition Unit or Squadron – this structure earned the title of “The World’s Most Heterogeneous Fleet”. This heterogeneity stems from the fact that the aircraft were not procured directly from a single source via new-build purchases, but rather through the acquisition—via donation or for a nominal fee—of second-hand aircraft from NATO allies that had been decommissioned from their inventories, featuring different blocks, production standards, engine variants and avionics configurations. This situation has presented extraordinary challenges in terms of maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO), parts standardisation and the sustainment of the logistics chain.
The Global Procurement Process and Operational Structure of the F-104 Platform in the Turkish Air Force
Source Country Number Acquired Base Model / Type Operational / Logistical Impact
West Germany 120–170 T/RF-104G Formed the numerical backbone; increased the MRO workload.
Netherlands 53 F-104G, RF-104G, TF-104G Symbolic price of $75,000; tactical reconnaissance without Orpheus pods.
Canada 50 CF-104, CF-104D Close Air Support (CAS) role, Orenda-engined, air-to-ground NASARR optimisation.
Italy 40 F-104S Purchased during the embargo; AIM-7 Sparrow & J79-GE-19 integrated.
Belgium: 17–18 F-104G; spare parts and replacement support.
Norway: 13 F-104G/RF-104G; a small-scale transfer to increase fleet diversity with TF/CF-104 variants.
Spain: 10–11 F-104G and TF-104G, 1972 Mürted reinforcement.
Notes:
(1) Some official logistics records state 165 F-104G and 36 TF-104G. Academic alternative sources generally accept a range of 120–130.
(2) Some transfer lists list 43 F-104Gs and 12 TF-104Gs (total 55).
(3) Divided into 44 CF-104s and 6 CF-104Ds.
(4) There are conflicting figures in the logistical records, with 17 or 18 units reported.
(5) These are detailed as 12 RF-104Gs and 1 TF-104G.
(6) Nine F-104Gs and two TF-104Gs were delivered in 1972. Alternative documents list these as eight F-104Gs and two RF-104Gs.
West German Inventory: Volume Sustainability and Backbone Integration
West Germany was by far the largest supplier to the Turkish F-104 inventory. A massive fleet of T/RF-104Gs, numbering between 120 and 170 (according to alternative figures in official logistics records: 165 F-104Gs and 36 TF-104Gs), which had been decommissioned from the Luftwaffe and Bundesmarine inventories, was gradually transferred to Turkey.
The impact of this transfer was twofold. On the one hand, the Turkish Air Force’s operational aircraft strength reached its peak, and a formidable deterrent factor was achieved along the Aegean–Mediterranean axis. On the other hand, these airframes – which had been flown by the German Air Force under the damp northern climate conditions and in extremely gruelling low-altitude nuclear attack profiles – were handed over at the limits of metal fatigue and structural deformation. This situation created an unprecedented workload at the 1st Air Logistics and Maintenance Centre (HİBM) in Eskişehir, involving maintenance at stock levels, airframe crack repairs and component replacements.
The Netherlands (1980–1984): Symbolic Costs and the Orpheus Reconnaissance Pod Issue
Between 1980 and 1984, the Royal Netherlands Air Force (KLu) transferred the F-104s it had withdrawn from service to Turkey for a symbolic fee of 75,000 dollars per aircraft. This package comprised a total of 53 aircraft (25 F-104G, 18 RF-104G, 10 TF-104G). As part of these transfers from the Netherlands, six of the 16 MAP aircraft – which had previously been delivered to the Netherlands with US approval – were also redirected to Turkey. The most critical aspect of this transfer was the status of the RF-104G tactical photo-reconnaissance aircraft.
The RF-104G models in the Dutch inventory had been modified to use the ‘Orpheus’ tactical reconnaissance pod—mounted on the centreline beneath the fuselage and housing high-resolution infrared and optical cameras—in place of the traditional trimetrogon in-fuselage camera systems. However, under the bilateral agreements, the Orpheus reconnaissance pods were excluded from the transfer package and were not delivered by the Netherlands. This situation resulted in the Dutch-manufactured RF-104Gs entering the Turkish Air Force’s inventory being deprived of their primary tactical reconnaissance instrument. This gap in reconnaissance capabilities forced the Turkish Air Force to extend the service life of standard RF-104G aircraft equipped with in-fuselage cameras and to increase the operational workload of the veteran RF-5 aircraft, creating operational gaps in tactical intelligence planning.
The Turkish Air Force did not simply stand by helplessly in the face of this intelligence shortfall. Engineers at the 1st Air Logistics and Maintenance Centre (1.HİBM) in Eskişehir successfully modified and integrated internal KS-67A trimetrogon camera systems—removed from other donor aircraft and those involved in accidents—into the fuselages of some of these Dutch RF-104Gs, which had arrived without pods.
Canada: CF-104/D Inventory and the Choice of Close Air Support (CAS) in Diyarbakır
A total of 50 aircraft – comprising 44 single-seater CF-104s and 6 two-seater CF-104Ds – which had served in the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF/CAF) inventory and were subsequently decommissioned from bases in Germany, were donated to Turkey in 1986. These aircraft were allocated to the 181st and 182nd Squadrons within the 2nd Tactical Air Force Command in Diyarbakır.
There were very clear technical and doctrinal reasons behind the decision to deploy these aircraft in Diyarbakır in a Close Air Support (CAS) and tactical attack role rather than for air defence:
- Radar and Avionics Configuration: The CF-104s had been specifically optimised for tactical nuclear strike missions and low-altitude, high-speed penetration missions across the European theatre. The Autonetics NASARR radar in the nose had been adapted to the ‘R-24A’ standard, with air-to-air modes removed, leaving only air-to-ground search, terrain mapping and navigation modes. This radar configuration completely ruled out the aircraft’s use in air-to-air detection and tracking missions.
-Structural and Engine Durability: These Canadian-built airframes were fitted with J79-OEL-7 engines manufactured under licence by Orenda4. The airframe structure was reinforced to withstand the intense turbulence loads and high dynamic pressures encountered at low altitudes.
-Weapon System Modifications: Due to their nuclear strike roles, the CF-104s were initially delivered without the in-fuselage 20 mm M61 Vulcan rotary cannon; instead, additional fuel tanks were installed in that area. However, following a modification carried out by Canada from 1972 onwards, the Vulcan cannons were reintegrated into the fuselage.
-Rugged Terrain and the Need for Counter-Terrorism Operations: In the challenging mountainous terrain of Eastern and South-Eastern Anatolia, the need to conduct precise, high-speed precision strikes against shelters and moving targets during counter-terrorism operations has made the air-to-ground-focused CF-104s the most effective close air support (CAS) platform in the region.
Although the CF-104s were originally designed in Canada for nuclear strike roles, they were equipped with a Boundary Layer Control (BLC) system, which increases lift by blowing air from the engine compressor, enabling them to approach steep mountainous terrain and short runways at high speed. This system provided a significant advantage for pilots by preventing the aircraft from stalling in the rugged terrain of Diyarbakır.
When the CF-104s arrived in Turkey from Canada, they were painted in their original ‘Canadian Green’ livery. After entering the Turkish inventory, they were repainted in the standard South-East Asian (SEA) camouflage scheme during maintenance cycles in Eskişehir.
Italy and the F-104S Procurement (1974–1977): Strategic Deterrent Power During the Embargo Period
The arms embargo imposed on Turkey by the United States Congress immediately following the 1974 Cyprus Peace Operation brought the Turkish Air Force’s supply of combat aircraft spare parts and modernisation projects to a standstill. During this critical crisis, the purchase of 40 F-104S (S-Sparrow) aircraft directly from Italy (Aeritalia/Fiat) to address the air defence shortfall stands as one of the most strategic procurement moves in Turkish military history. The F-104S, which entered service in two separate batches of 18 and 22 aircraft respectively, is the most advanced and powerful model in the Starfighter family. Claims that the funding for this purchase utilised financial support provided to Turkey by Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi—as a gesture of goodwill following consultancy services rendered by the Turkish Air Force for the restructuring of the Libyan Air Force within the framework of the geopolitical alliances of the time—are also reflected in military-historical documents.
Technical Comparison of the F-104G and F-104S
Specification F-104G (NATO Standard) F-104S (Italian / Aeritalia)
Engine Variant General Electric J79-GE-11A General Electric J79-GE-19
Dry / Afterburner Thrust 45.20 kN / 70.51 kN 52.69 kN / 79.45 kN
Radar NASARR F15A NASARR R-21G/H (MTI-compatible). Although limited, the ‘Look-down/Shoot-down’ capability was first introduced with this radar (R-21G).
Air-to-Air Missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder (Infrared), AIM-7 Sparrow (Semi-Active Radar) & AIM-9 Sidewinder
Number of External Pylons: 5, 9
20 mm M61 Vulcan Cannon: Removed (in intercept configuration)
The most radical capability the F-104S brought to the Turkish Air Force was the ability to fire AIM-7 Sparrow semi-active radar-guided medium-range air-to-air missiles via the NASARR R-21G/H radar. Whilst all previous Starfighter variants could only carry short-range infrared-guided AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, the F-104S enabled the Turkish Air Force to acquire ‘Beyond Visual Range’ (BVR) air combat capability for the first time specifically with the F-104. The 13 per cent increase in power provided by the J79-GE-19 engine, combined with the integrated auxiliary air intake (blow-in) flaps designed to supply additional air to the aircraft during take-off, maximised the aircraft’s climb and high-speed interception performance.
As there was no space left within the fuselage to integrate the avionics and computers for the AIM-7 Sparrow missile system into the F-104S, the aircraft’s standard armament—the 20 mm M61 Vulcan rotary cannon—was completely removed. This transformed the F-104S into a purely missile-focused interceptor, leaving the aircraft virtually defenceless in close-range engagements or when its missile supply was exhausted.
During the years of the embargo, these 40 F-104S aircraft served as a critical balancing factor in maintaining air superiority against Greek fighter aircraft over the Aegean. However, alongside this superior technical performance, the aircraft accounted for a significant proportion of accident and loss statistics due to being flown at the limits of their capabilities and high operational tempos; 25 of the 40 aircraft in the inventory were lost in various accidents.
Other Donors: Partial Transfers from Belgium, Norway and Spain
Other allied grants and transfers that complemented the multinational composition of the fleet were as follows:
-Belgium: The Belgian Air Force (FAB) transferred 17 (or 18, according to some archive documents) F-104G aircraft, which it had withdrawn from service, to Turkey. These airframes were used as a pool of replacement airframes and spare parts to offset wear and tear in the operational fleets.
-Norway: Twelve RF-104G tactical reconnaissance aircraft, which had been preserved in cold-weather conditions and had relatively low flight hours, along with one TF-104G (some records mention up to three TF/CF-104 variants), were received to reinforce the reconnaissance squadrons.
-Spain (1972): To strengthen the squadrons at the 4th Main Jet Base in Mürted, 9 F-104G and 2 TF-104G aircraft were received as a grant from the Spanish Air Force. Alternatively, Spanish military archives list this inventory as 8 F-104Gs and 2 RF-104Gs.
This fragmented donor structure resulted in aircraft flying side by side within the Turkish Air Force inventory that featured wiring diagrams to American, Canadian, German, Dutch, Belgian and Italian standards, cockpit displays in different languages, and even different screw/thread sizes (with both metric and imperial systems coexisting). Engineers and technicians at the 1st HİBM in Eskişehir demonstrated exceptional logistical engineering in integrating and harmonising the unique technical manuals (Technical Orders – T.O.) of each donor country.
