Founding Document, Deed and Deed of the Republic of Turkey 100th Anniversary of Lausanne Peace Treaty

24 July 1923, Happy 100th Anniversary of the Lausanne Peace Treaty signed in Lausanne, Switzerland, which started on 21 November 1922 and lasted for 8 months with intervals, which is of great importance in the history of Turkey after the victory won in the War of Independence.

"Lausanne Peace Treaty" is the foundation, founding document and deed of the "Fully Independent" Republic of Turkey by putting an end to all kinds of capitulation. Not only the 4-year War of Independence, but also the 10-year war chain between 1911 and 1922 (Tripoli, Balkan, World War I and the War of Independence), with the liberation of Izmir on 9 September 1922, the Greek occupation forces were cleared from the Anatolian lands with the liberation of Izmir, which was the starting date of the peace process and a diplomatic victory that ended the war. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk described Lausanne as; "This treaty is a document that declares the collapse of a great attempt to destroy the Turkish nation, which had been prepared for centuries and was thought to have been completed with the Treaty of Sevres. It is a political victory unprecedented in the Ottoman history". In addition to Turkey, delegates from the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Belgium, Portugal, Romania and Yugoslavia attended the Lausanne Conference. The USA took part as an observer, the USSR took part in the sessions where the straits problem and Bulgaria took part in the sessions where the problems related to the territories on the Aegean Sea coast would be discussed. 

The Lausanne Peace Treaty was signed on 24 July 1923 at the Beau-Rivage Palace on the shores of Lake Leman. This treaty is a treaty that stopped the Turkish retreat to the west in front of Edirne, ended imperialism's dream of a divided and dismembered Turkey, took the international certificate of independence into its hands, and ensured that it was officially recognised by all world states as an "Independent" and "Sovereign" state within the borders of Misak-ı Milli. With this treaty, the Turks, who were expelled first from Europe and then from the Balkans, were enabled to hold on to Thrace and Anatolia. The Lausanne Peace Treaty, as the only treaty in the world signed after World War I and still valid for 100 years, constituted the first concrete implementation of Atatürk's principle of "Peace at Home, Peace in the World".

The Ottoman Empire submitted to the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920, but the order it envisaged was overturned by the War of Independence. As a result of the victory of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM) Government against the Greek forces, the Mudanya Armistice Treaty was signed on 11 October 1922, paving the way for the birth of a strong Turkish State in Anatolia. In the face of these changing conditions, the Entente States, which were parties to the Treaty of Sèvres, invited the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey to the peace conference to be held in Lausanne on 13 November 1922 on 28 October 1922, and also invited the Istanbul Government to put pressure on the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. In reaction to this situation, the Ottoman Empire was ended with the abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk put the final point with the words: "As a natural consequence of the decisive victory won by the armies of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the State of Turkey will be represented at the Peace Conference only and only by the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey". On 2 November 1922, Dr. Rıza Nur and Hasan Saka were elected as delegates and İsmet İnönü was elected as the President of the delegation. İsmet İnönü, who had achieved significant successes on the battlefields during the War of Independence and showed great diplomatic success in the Mudanya Armistice Treaty, was appointed as the chief representative for the negotiations and was appointed as the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was the only power to represent Turkey at the meeting held at the level of Foreign Ministers.

On 31 October 1922, the Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly gave a 14-point instruction to the delegation that would participate in the negotiations and the delegation acted in accordance with these instructions. It aimed to realise the Misak-ı Millisi, to prevent the establishment of an Armenian state in Turkey, to abolish the capitulations, to solve the problems (economic, political, legal) between Turkey and Greece (Western Thrace, Aegean islands, population exchange, war compensation) and between Turkey and European states. The acceptance of the Armenian homeland and the capitulations were dictated as issues that could never be compromised. The delegation headed by İsmet İnönü left for the Lausanne Conference on 4 November and arrived in Lausanne on 12 November. 

On 12 November, İsmet İnönü said in his note: "Since the opening date of the Conference has been firmly fixed as 13 November, I have the honour to inform you that the Turkish Delegation to Lausanne is ready to enter into negotiations on the date agreed upon. I state, and you will appreciate, that the delay of peace is of such a nature as to prolong sacrifices and inconveniences to the Turkish nation, the magnitude of which cannot be appreciated, and to produce unexpected results, the elimination of which does not depend solely on our goodwill. I therefore express my most ardent wishes for the speedy convening of the Conference in the interests of world peace and assure you of my best regards."

On 13 November, İsmet İnönü told the newspapers Le Matin and La Tribune de Geneve: "It is not easy to keep a whole nation and a whole army in a state of indefinite armistice. You are not dealing with a colony, but a free nation, not subordinate but equal. Turkey came to Lausanne to sincerely seek peace. If peace is lost, if war breaks out again, it will be a great misery for everyone, but especially for Europe". Again, before travelling to Istanbul, he told journalists in Sapanca: "Our peace terms are known to the world. Our aims for which we have endured all kinds of sacrifices for many years are very modest and very just. These aims are in two words. "Misak-ı Milli". It stated the aim and goal of the Turkish Nation.

The opening meeting of the Lausanne Peace Conference was held at the Lausanne-Monthbenon Casino at 15.30 on 20 November 1922. İsmet İnönü objected to the allocation of a seat for Turkey in the hall between Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia, so Turkish delegates sat at the same table with the British, French and Italian delegates. İnönü stated that if any delegate other than the Swiss President made a speech, he would definitely make a speech himself, and upon the speech of Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Minister, he made the second speech himself. In his speech, he stated the sufferings and injustices suffered by Turkey, the attacks on Anatolia, the great destruction and sufferings in the country and said: "I would like to remind you that even at this moment more than one million innocent Turks are still wandering around the plains and plateaus of Asia Minor, homeless, breadless and vagabond-like. By enduring these sacrifices, which are beyond human strength, the Turkish nation has gained a great place in civilised humanity as an element of peace, tranquility and hard work, with the rights of existence and independence, which are peculiar to those who have a deep-rooted power to live. The definite aim of the Turkish Grand National Assembly is to protect and strengthen this place". "We are content with the Misak-ı Milli, no more, no less", he stated that there was no other goal and that he wanted to live in freedom and independence like all civilised nations, that the National Struggle was a struggle for equality and a just peace, and emphasised the Misak-ı Milli and full independence. 

He insisted that the Entente States and the new Turkey were equal and that they participated in peace negotiations under the same conditions and that they would not accept superiority under any circumstances. Lord Curzon's historical speech to Inönü; "We have been negotiating for months. We cannot get any of what we desire. You do not give. You do not show understanding. We are not satisfied with you. But whatever you refuse, we put it in our pockets. We keep it in our pockets. Your country is in ruins. If you come tomorrow, you will ask for help to repair these things, to develop. At that time, I will take out each and every one of the things I put in my pockets and give them to you". İsmet İnönü said: "We have reached this result with much labour. Our conditions are right according to our nation. We will take them no matter what. We will take them, you give them to us now. If we come back later, do what you want". he replied.

On 21 November, the Lausanne Peace Treaty negotiations started under difficult conditions and in a heavy atmosphere. The Entente States organised 3 commissions: Territorial, Military and Straits, Minorities, Financial and Economic and Legal Issues. Mosul and the Straits with Britain, capitulations and Ottoman debts with France, cabotage rights, minorities and the Patriarchate with Italy, Thrace border and war indemnity with Greece, and the islands were the most problematic issues and the main issues on which the negotiations were blocked. However, no agreement was reached on the abolition of capitulations, the evacuation of Istanbul and Mosul. War indemnity was also raised as an important issue, and the sessions were characterised by fierce debates as the victorious states, particularly Britain and France, tried to get Turkey to accept the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres by slightly easing them. The conference reached a deadlock due to the determined stance of the Turkish side in seeking its rights, the efforts of the representatives of the Entente to build the negotiations on the conditions of Sevres, and especially the uncompromising attitude of Britain. 

In his speech to the public and journalists in Izmit on 19 January 1923, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk said: "Our enemies are pursuing the aim of annihilating us, which was set out in the content of the Treaty of Sèvres, under a different guise. The British are interested in the Straits, the French in capitulations. Mosul is very important for us. However, is it reasonable to continue the war by not taking Mosul? The Lausanne Conference is not occupied with the settlement and finalisation of accounts of yesterday, today, three years, four years. Perhaps it is busy with the settlement of many accumulated and concentrated accounts of three hundred, four hundred years. It is not so easy to get out of such deep, so complicated and so dirty accounts in a short time".

On 30 January 1923, Lord Curzon presented a peace draft with a slightly softened version of the Treaty of Sèvres. The conference was dissolved on 4 February 1923 due to the unwillingness of the parties to make concessions on fundamental issues and the failure to meet on a common ground, especially on issues that the Turkish side found "contrary to independence". With the dissolution of the Lausanne Conference, the possibility of war was brought to the agenda. Commander-in-Chief Field Marshal Mustafa Kemal Pasha ordered the Turkish Army to start preparations for war and put it on alert. He removed the enemy navy from Izmir and organised the Izmir Economic Congress in order to teach a lesson to England and France, who refused to abolish the capitulations. The Soviet Union declared that if war broke out again, this time it would enter the war on Turkey's side. The Allied Powers could not risk a new war and the reaction of their own public opinion and invited Turkey to Lausanne to restart peace negotiations.

On 23 April 1923, negotiations resumed and lasted for 3 months until 24 July. This process was very troublesome for Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, İsmet İnönü, Rauf Orbay and the Board of Deputies. Especially the conflicts between Prime Minister Rauf Orbay and İsmet İnönü played an important role in the peace negotiations. The Lausanne Peace Conference ended on the evening of 17 July 1923. However, the authorisation telegram, which should have been sent by the government for the signature of the treaty, was not sent, and in order to solve the problem, İsmet İnönü sent a telegram to Atatürk, the President of the Parliament, on 18 July: "I had submitted to the Government three days ago that the conference had ended. Since we did not receive any reply, I think there is a hesitation. If the Government wants to reject what we have accepted, they can take the signature authority from us. We do not expect thanks from the Government". Atatürk wrote to İsmet İnönü on 19 July 1923: "There is no hesitation in anyone. In order to congratulate you on your success with our warmest and most sincere feelings, we are waiting for the notification that the Treaty has been duly signed, brother". İsmet İnönü successfully completed both the honourable and troublesome struggle of the tough, rough, dangerous road that lasted eight months in Lausanne. 

On 20 July 1923, he expressed the troubles of the road he had travelled on 20 July 1923: "Gazi Mustafa Kemal, you come to me like a speedster every time I am in a tight spot. Imagine the torment I have suffered for four or five days. You are a man who has done and created great things. My loyalty to you has increased one more time. I kiss your eyes, my dear, dear brother, my dear chief". Nowadays, especially for the younger generations, the ordeal, conflict and troublesome cost of Lausanne is not emphasised, because it is a peace treaty that has been lost to history. In this process, the ropes were strained, sometimes to the point of breaking, so much so that even the withdrawal of İsmet İnönü or his return after leaving the negotiations came to the agenda. In the second part of the negotiations, which started as a result of difficult, exhausting, harsh, sometimes despairing discussions and intensive diplomatic efforts, an agreement was reached on many issues with the more moderate attitude of the Entente States, especially Britain, and the negotiations were concluded positively. All the Entente Powers, especially the British, had to sign the political treaty that ensured the establishment of a new "State" on Anatolian lands. On 24 July 1923, the text agreed upon by the countries was signed. 

The state of war between Turkey and the Entente and Greece ended, and the victory won in the War of Independence was documented and legalised. This success gave Atatürk the prestige and authority to establish a new state. British historian Arnold Toynbee said: "The success of Turkish diplomacy at Lausanne resulted in a peace treaty with former enemies, except for one issue. The only issue that could not be settled was the Mosul Question. This was left for later in order not to leave other issues in a deadlock". Turkey fought alone against a world of enmity. A "United European Front" was established with the "Allied Front" formed by Britain, France and Italy and the "Balkan Bloc" formed by the Balkan countries. Lord Curzon threatened Turkey: "Those who would challenge this unification and go to war against it have not the slightest hope of success for themselves". Despite this front, Turkey won a diplomatic victory.

The Lausanne Peace Treaty, which regained Anatolia lost by the Ottoman Empire with the Treaty of Sevres, consisted of 5 chapters and 143 articles. According to its basic provisions, the Eastern border was accepted as it was in the treaty signed with the USSR and the Southern border was accepted as it was in the Ankara Agreement of 20 October 1921 signed with the French. The division and fragmentation of Anatolia (Armenian and Kurdish State) in Sevres was not allowed. The establishment of the State of Armenia became a thing of the past and today's borders remained as the borders of the homeland. The issue of Kurdistan was never on the agenda and was buried in the graveyard of political history, never to be resurrected again. The borders of Turkey (except Mosul and Hatay) were drawn. Foreign zones of influence in Anatolia and its de facto disintegration were abolished. The Iraqi Border was resolved with a new treaty signed between the two countries on 5 June 1926, after the British and Turkish governments agreed to negotiate and agree on Mosul. Turkey-Iran Border was determined according to the Treaty of Kasr-ı Shirin signed on 17 May 1639. The Turkish-Greek border was accepted as defined in the Mudanya Armistice Treaty signed on 11 October 1922. Karaağaç station and Bosnaköy, west of the Evros River, were given to Turkey as war indemnity in return for the destruction caused by Greece in Western Anatolia. Anatolia was completely liberated from the Greeks and the Allied Powers gave up the reparations they had demanded for World War I.

Imroz Island (Gökçeada) and Bozcaada in the Aegean Sea were given to Turkey on condition that they would be subject to autonomous administration. Gökçeada, Bozcaada, Tavşan islands and all islands and islets less than 3 miles from Anatolia were taken. In addition, it was ensured that no naval bases and fortifications would be established on the islands left to Greece. The Aegean Islands were left to Italy, and it was decided to disarm the islands close to the Turkish border. With the Treaty of Sevres, the Twelve Islands were left to Italy and the other islands to Greece. Later on, the Dodecanese Islands and Rhodes were captured by the Allies in 1945 and officially handed over to Greece in April 1947. Straits was the most debated issue throughout the negotiations. A temporary solution was introduced, allowing freedom of passage for non-military ships and aircraft through the Istanbul and Dardanelles straits in peacetime and restricting military vessels. In the event of war, Turkey would act according to whether it was a party to the war or not, and an international board, with a Turkish chairman, was established to demilitarise both sides of the Straits and to ensure passage. It was decided that these arrangements would be maintained under the guarantee of the League of Nations. This provision was amended in favour of Turkey by the Montreux Convention on the Straits signed on 20 July 1936. 

The right to carry cargo and passengers in the Turkish seas, which was given to foreigners with the capitulations, was left to the Turks, but its full implementation was carried out with the "Cabotage Law" enacted on 1 July 1926. With this step taken in the early years of our Republic, the development of our maritime industry gained momentum, and the Turkish nation's interest in and sense of ownership of the seas was strengthened. On 27 January 1937, the League of Nations accepted the independence of Hatay, the independent Republic of Hatay was established on 2 September 1938 and decided to join Turkey on 29 June 1939. 

The debts of the Ottoman Empire were divided among the states that separated from the Ottoman Empire in proportion to their incomes and "Düyunu Umumiye" remained ineffective. It was decided that Turkey would pay its share in instalments in French francs. The capitulations, which had exploited the Ottoman Empire to the bone for centuries, were completely abolished, which was one of the issues insisted upon by the Turkish government. Customs tariffs were reorganised and customs independence was achieved. The imposition of "Muslim" minorities by the West and the request for an institution to protect minorities with the principle decision of 10 January 1923 were rejected. Minorities were defined as non-Muslims, all minorities were recognised as Turkish nationals and no privileges were granted. It was decided that the Turks in Greece-Western Thrace and the Greeks in Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, except for the Greeks in Istanbul, would be exchanged. 

The Patriarchate, which is the religious leader of the world Orthodox, was allowed to remain in Istanbul by being freed from its political and administrative powers. Article 40 of the Treaty reads as follows: "Turkish nationals belonging to non-Muslim minorities shall enjoy, both in law and in practice, the same treatment and the same guarantees as other Turkish nationals. In particular, they shall have an equal right, at their own expense, to establish, manage and control all kinds of charitable, religious and social institutions, all kinds of schools and similar institutions of instruction and education, and to use their own language freely and to perform their religious rites freely in them." Foreign schools were subjected to the laws and regulations applicable to Turkish schools and their privileges were terminated. 

During the Lausanne Peace Conference, Prime Minister Rauf Orbay and the Head of the Delegation and Foreign Minister İsmet İnönü had difficulties. At 10.30 on 25 July, Prime Minister Rauf Orbay came to Çankaya to give the news of the signing of the peace to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk; "We owe the success of this happy day, especially you, to Pasha Karabekir, Ali Fuat and Refet. This is your work. I am fortunate to work among you as a friend. Ever since Amasya, when you came together in a very sincere manner and started to work for the salvation of the homeland with renunciation and sacrifice, I have always had the desire to kiss your hands. Now I will express these feelings by kissing your hands." With these words, he stated the architects of success. However, he resigned by stating that he was unwell, tired and wanted to see his mother in Izmir and said goodbye by asking Atatürk's permission. Prime Minister Rauf Orbay, who did not want to welcome the delegation returning from Lausanne and congratulate them for their success, left Ankara on 4 August without returning home.

On 25 July 1923, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk said to İsmet İnönü, the Chairman of the Delegation and Minister of Foreign Affairs: "You have successfully completed the new duty that the Nation and the Government have given to your State. You have crowned your life, which has consisted of a series of useful services to the country, with a historical success. On this day, when our homeland has achieved peace and independence after long struggles, I would like to congratulate Your Excellency, our honourable friends Rıza Nur and Hasan Bey and all the members of the Delegation who helped you in your work." 

In his Nutuk, Atatürk describes the events with Rauf Orbay as follows: "I cannot come face to face with İsmet Pasha. I cannot be present at his reception. If you allow me, I will travel to Sivas to walk around my constituency in order not to be here when he arrives. I told Mr Rauf that there was no reason for this course of action, that it would be appropriate to be here, to receive İsmet Pasha in a manner befitting a head of government, and to appreciate and congratulate him verbally for performing his duty well. But I am not in control of myself, I cannot do it". A captivity treaty such as Sevres was torn up and thrown away, but his unwillingness to welcome İsmet İnönü showed jealousy in his mood and they parted ways on the first day of peace. The first rupture between the pioneers, who were fellow travellers and intellectuals in the National Struggle, began. Atatürk, showing outstanding leadership, skilfully managed the crisis under these circumstances and managed to extinguish a fire that tended to grow before it grew.

In his speech to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 23 August 1923, İsmet İnönü said: "The documents in your hands are the result of a period of political struggle. The Lausanne Conference is a test to which our nation was invited to the centre of Europe. In Lausanne, Turkey came to meet the educated and trained representatives of the delegations that govern the world today. Both during the war struggle and during the peace negotiations, I had to make heavy decisions under heavy responsibilities due to fate. My source of strength was especially the President of the Grand National Assembly, Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha. In an extremely confused, tangled and clouded environment, an accurate view is necessary to guide the way. It was Mustafa Kemal Pasha who showed us this accurate view both in war life and in peace life".

With the ratification of the Lausanne Peace Treaty by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on 23 August 1923, the war phase of the National Struggle came to an end and the era of revolutions began for the establishment and construction of the country's future. This treaty, which was an important step in the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, was also the only honourable document among the treaties that ended World War I. The Lausanne Peace Treaty was signed by Greece on 25 August 1923, Italy on 12 March 1924, Portugal on 28 May 1926 and Japan on 15 May 1924. The USA did not sign as it participated as an observer. Britain ratified on 24 April 1924 and France on 27 August 1924. The Lausanne Peace Treaty entered into force on 6 August 1924 after the documents indicating the ratification of all parties were officially transmitted to the French Foreign Affairs Archive in Paris. 

Britain delayed the ratification with the idea that the newly established Turkish Republic would not last long and would be destroyed in a short time. The Treaty of Lausanne, which recognised the existence of Turkey to the whole world after long years of war, created a festive atmosphere in the country. The indivisible borders of the "Misak-ı Milli" were recognised as an indivisible whole by the whole world, and an independent "Turkish Nation State" was established through population exchange and unity of law. In Lausanne, Turkey rejected the law of capitulation, minority law, religious law, i.e. multi-jurisdictionalism, and accepted modern, secular law based on equality, thus achieving legal unity.

In order to understand that the Lausanne Peace Treaty is an important political victory in itself and its importance, it is enough to measure the difference between the "Treaty of Sevres", a treaty in which a state was completely abolished and the Turks were expelled from Europe. The case of "Duyunu Umumiye-Ottoman Debts", which is one of the most troublesome and humiliating issues in the recent history of the Ottoman state, is an unknown subject for the present generations. State debts, which were used to close the treasury deficits of the palace and the state, became one of the most important elements of the colonisation of Tanzimat and Constitutional Monarchy Turkey. They recognised the Ottoman Empire as a "Sick Man", divided its inheritance, and recorded each state's share in their books. Saying that it will die, let's kill it if it does not die, they prepared the killing document with the "Treaty of Sevres". 

Lausanne Peace Treaty; It is a historical document that opens a new and very important era in the existence of the Turkish nation, which is the beginning of a victory and liberation for the whole Islamic world, and constitutes an important turning point in history by dividing the periods of the world into two. Among the treaties that ended World War I, it is the only treaty in force today, and among the borders drawn after World War I and World War II, it is only the borders of the Republic of Turkey that are valid. Had the National Struggle not been fought and ended in victory, the Lausanne Peace Treaty would not have been realised, the Republic would not have been established and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk would not have existed. Turkey would have perished in the shameful garment that was given to her by the Treaty of Sevres. Today, in our country, in newspaper columns, in squares, in conferences; those who praise the sultanate, the caliphate and the Sharia state, those who defend the second Republic and ummahism, those who try to destroy Atatürk would find themselves in a silent, exhausted corner of Anatolia, living or thinking they are living under the shadow of dishonour, or they would have long since disappeared. It is necessary to evaluate the Lausanne Peace Treaty and its aftermath as a whole. Because today, it pioneers and guides the basic administrative rules of the state. It is one of the rare examples in the history of nations that a political treaty made after a war in the life of other countries remains as a document that preserves its value 100 years later. This is a fact that future generations should never lose sight of.

The Lausanne Peace Treaty, like military victories, is a gain that is the right of our nation and the product of its own ability. It is a national artefact that holds a place in Turkish political history. As a political document that is the basic element in the establishment of a new Turkish State, it is the beginning of the rights of a fully civilised and independent state. It has created a Turkish State that is fully free and equal on the stage of history, fully independent and free at home and abroad. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk; "Writing history is as important as making history. If the writer is not faithful to the doer, the unchanging reality becomes a state that surprises humanity." History is not the past. We carry history with us. If we do not know our own history and pretend that it is not so, we experience guilt and cannot foresee the future. The principles and principles of the Lausanne Peace Treaty are still alive 100 years after its signing and will be kept alive in the future, and if we do not keep them alive, we are to blame.

REFERENCES:

ATATÜRK, Mustafa Kemal, Nutuk, Turkish History Institutions, Ankara, 1989.

AYDEMİR, Şevket Süreyya, Tek Adam, C-II, 1919-1922, Remzi Kitapevi, 1987, Istanbul.

MEYDAN, Sinan, ATATÜRK Effect, İnkılâp Publishing House, Istanbul, 2019.

MÜTERCİMLER, Erol, Fikrimiz Rehberi, Alfa Publications, 2008.

 ÖYMEN, Onur, Çöküşüşten Zafere Lozan, Remzi Kitabevi, Istanbul, 2022.

ÖZDEMİR, Hikmet, Kemal ATATÜRK in War and Peace, Doğan Egmont Publishing, 2019.

ŞİMŞİR, Bilal, Lausanne Diary, Bilgi Publishing House, Ankara, September 2014.