How to Win a Civil War: The Case of Caesar (Gaius Iulius Caesar): Part 1

Who is Caesar?

Caesar was a Roman soldier and politician who lived between 100-44 BC. He was also a good orator and writer. He achieved great military successes by annexing Gaul to Roman territory and invading England for the first time. In addition to these military successes, he also rose rapidly in state administration. His first important political achievement was his mission in Spain. In 60 BC, Caesar served as Propraetor (an official appointed to the administration of a province after serving as a judicial official in the Roman state hierarchy) in Spain and decided to run for consul for the following year. 

According to the existing custom, candidates for consul must present themselves and announce their candidacy at the forum in Rome, but Caesar, being an Imperium (a person authorized to command military units), was forbidden by law to enter the city past the sacred borders of Rome. For this reason, he came to the city limits and applied to the Senate to organize a triumphal procession in honor of his victories in Spain. Because a triumphal procession is very important to win the support of the Roman people. But with the elections so close, it is impossible for the procession to take place on time. 

Caesar was an ambitious man. Reaching the highest positions of the state is one of his biggest goals. Except for the dictator, who was elected in a state of emergency in Rome, the highest state office is the consulship. For this reason, Caesar very much wants to become a consul. For this, he asked the Senate to allow him to run without entering the city, bypassing the legal restriction, but many of his rivals, especially Cato, blocked the Senate and prevented this from being voted on.

When Caesar failed to get permission from the Senate, instead of returning, Caesar waived the triumphal procession and his office and entered Rome as a civilian citizen to run for office the following year.  Caesar, who immediately started working to be elected consul, reconciled Pompeus and Crassus, two of the most powerful and richest men in Rome, who did not like each other very much, and formed a secret alliance with them. 

According to the treaty he made with these two people; they will support Caesar to be consul. In return, Caesar would support the approval of Pompeus' actions in the east in the enato and allow him to distribute land to his soldiers. For Crassus, he will ensure that the tax collectors in the province of Asia will issue decrees granting him exemptions. Caesar then contacted Cicero and some other influential people.

As a result of these efforts, Caesar won the elections and took office as one of the two consuls elected on January 1, 59 BC. Since he received more votes than the other consul, Bibulus, he was given the authority to govern the country for the first month. Caesar immediately drafted a law to distribute land and wheat to the poor and to Pompeus' demobilized soldiers. However, Cato prevented this in the Senate.

Caesar was angered by this and demanded Cato's arrest, but was unsuccessful. He then appealed to the People's Assembly to put the law directly to a popular vote. In Rome, the people were divided into two groups: patricians and plebeians, that is, nobles and commoners. The People's Assembly (Tribunus Plebis) was a powerful body elected from among the plebeians, which protected the rights of the plebeians and had the power to propose or veto laws.

When this law was put to a vote, it caused tension in Rome and clashes broke out between the parties. Thereupon, the supporters and armed men of Pompeus and Crassus, Caesar's allies, filled the forum and gained control. Thus, with the support of the common people, the law protecting the interests of Pompeus and Crassus was passed, strengthened with articles that could not be challenged. 

In the second month, when the power to govern passed to the other consul, Bibulus condemned Caesar and the law he had passed in the Senate and demanded that Caesar be punished. But no one dared to oppose Caesar, who had gained the support of the majority of the people. Thanks to the public support and legal immunity he had gained, Caesar was able to do whatever he wanted without hesitation. When the consul Bibulus, who was not economically powerful, went into seclusion, Caesar began to rule the country almost alone. 

In order to strengthen and enrich his supporters, Caesar manipulated the entire state mechanism in the way he wanted and changed the laws one by one accordingly. For example, he passed a law on provincial governorships, which became a means of enrichment. Even Cicero supported this law because he himself benefited from it.

Caesar then passed a law distributing treasury lands to poor peasants in Southern Italy who could not get land under the previous law. Thus, he succeeded in gaining the support of the masses of the people by giving away treasure lands. He also made legal arrangements for some of his close supporters to be elected to the People's Assembly, contrary to established practices.

While this increased Caesar's supporters, it also caused his opponents to come together. The fact that he submitted his bills to the People's Assembly by ignoring the Senate and did not hesitate to use violence to get what he wanted earned the hatred of the aristocratic class and three of the most powerful men in Rome formed an alliance against him. Later, others began to join them. 

Seeing this polarization, Cicero correctly assessed where the tension would lead and started talking about a possible civil war. Because of these laws that changed the system of the state, the old established political groups, aristocrats and some powerful people hate Caesar to death and will never forget what he did. Thus, all the seeds of civil war were sown, waiting for the right time and conditions to sprout.

The germination of the seeds of civil war

In 58 BC, after serving as consul for a year, Caesar went to Gaul as the commander of military troops, and the problems created by the changes he made in disregard of the law and the established order began to manifest themselves. The most important of these problems was the rise of class conflict, which had been surfacing from time to time for a long time. Those whom Caesar had illegally appointed as members of the People's Assembly, which was composed of representatives of the lower class, formed gangs and started to put pressure on prominent people. As a result, even Cicero was exiled and Caesar seized the opportunity to win his support, offering him to come with him to Gaul to avoid arrest. Cicero, however, refused.

When Caesar left the capital and the term of office of those he had elected to the People's Assembly expired, his enemies took action. When they formed their own gangs, conflicts and political instability emerged in the capital. Taking advantage of this, Pompeus started to increase his influence and supporters by ensuring Cicero's return from exile. 

When Cicero returned from exile, he argued that his enemies, who were members of the People's Assembly, were illegally elected to the assembly and therefore all his decisions were invalid. He supported Pompeus in distributing grain to the people and thus tried to reduce the influence of Caesar and those he had elected over the people. He also argued that Caesar's distribution of treasury lands to the people reduced state revenue and that these laws should be annulled. 

Thus, after Cicero's return from exile, things started to go badly for Caesar in Rome. However, Caesar was not idle during this period. He was winning great military victories in Gaul and accumulating a great fortune thanks to the spoils he obtained. Thus, while his political power declines, his military and economic power peaks. Nevertheless, Caesar's consulship continues to be hotly debated in Rome. Even his former ally Pompeus started to gather military forces against Caesar due to his military victories and great wealth.

Seeing this, Caesar summoned Crassus and Pompeus, whom he still considered as allies, to Gaul and held a meeting. At this meeting, it was decided to elect them as consuls and to cooperate to extend Caesar's term as commander for another term. As a result, the consul elections, which had been postponed due to disturbances, were held despite intense clashes between the armed supporters of the candidates, and Pompeus and Crassus were elected consuls. Caesar's term as commander of the military forces in Gaul was then extended by five years with the support of Pompeus and Crassus. 

In 54 BC, the death of both Caesar's mother and his daughter, who was married to Pompeus, was a major blow to his alliance with Pompeus, which was based on a common interest and tied by a thread. Because the ties of kinship have disappeared. Moreover, a period begins in which Caesar will need this alliance more than before.

Loyalty instead of Merit

At that time, corruption was at its height in Rome, and state posts were either being sold for money or powerful men were being appointed to important positions. In other words, merit, which had been the key factor in Rome's rapid transformation from a tiny state to a great empire, lost its importance and loyalty came to the fore.

In 53 BC, Caesar lost his other ally forever. Because Crassus, who was serving in Syria, died along with his son in a war with the Parthians. Thus, there remained two people in the Roman Empire who could rival each other in terms of military, economic and political power: Caesar and Pompeus.

In 52 BC, Publis Clodius, whom Caesar had elected to the People's Assembly and who had been spreading fear with his armed men ever since, ran for praetor. Since Milo, his archenemy, was also a candidate for the consulship, violent clashes between the two began to take place in Rome. Clodius was killed in these clashes and when Milo was put on trial in the forum in Rome as if nothing had happened, the armed people revolted. Milo was then forced to flee the city. 

Election of Pompeus as a Consul

Because of these confusions, the election of Popmpeus as dictator was on the agenda in the Senate. Because there was no election, both consul posts were vacant. Some senators also advocated the appointment of Caesar and Pompeus as consuls. However, Caesar politely rejected this proposal as he was busy winning very important military victories in Gaul. 

Pompeus was then appointed consul alone. This was a first in Roman history. Because Pompeus was not elected but appointed by the Senate. Moreover, consulship is an office held by two people, but he was elected alone and was allowed to keep military troops in Rome to maintain public order, even though it was normally forbidden.

Pompeus, who came to the highest office of the state alone with the full support of the Senate, started to work quickly with this power. First of all, since he thought that the state should be taken out of the rottenness it had fallen into, he passed a law to investigate and prosecute those who had been bribed and corrupt for the last twenty years. However, Caesar's supporters in Rome informed him that this law was passed against Caesar. 

Although Pompeus was consul at the same time, he had no fear of being tried. Because despite his consulship, which was contrary to law and custom, and despite the fact that he did not hesitate to use violence with his soldiers claiming that he would maintain order in Rome, he did not pass any law that the aristocrats did not like. Immediately after the enactment of this law, Pompeus started to prosecute those who committed corruption and violated the law. 

Pompeus also passed a law on the election of consuls, which was one of the main sources of Rome's problems. Accordingly, candidates would have to come to Rome in person and announce their candidacy. In addition, those who had served as consuls could not be appointed to another office until five years had passed. He also extended his terms in Spain and Africa by five years. 

Note

In the preparation of this article, the following sources were used: Caesar's Notes on the Civil War published by Doğubatı Publishing House, Montesquieu's The Rise and Fall of the Romans published by Köprü Publishing House, Caesar's The Battle of Gallia published by Hourglass Publishing House, and internet sources such as Wikipedia.

(to be continued)