East Turkestan, How Close? (2)

In our previous article on this subject, we talked about the historical past of the Uyghurs and East Turkestan. In this article, we will examine the interaction of the Uyghurs with other tribes and societies in a historical perspective, the development and some change of their socio-cultural structures from past to present.

The word “Uyghur” was first encountered in Turkish sources in Orkhon Inscriptions. According to the classification made during the Gokturk Empire period, among the "Oghuz tribes", which are the "relative community", one of the related communities that made up the "On Oghuzes" is the Uyghur tribe. The Uyghur Society, which is a part of the ancient Turkish nation and means "self-sufficient" according to Kaşgarlı Mahmut; It is mentioned abundantly in Turkish, Persian, Chinese and Arab sources.

Towards the end of the 5th century, Tuyuhuns and Rourans, one of the Turkish tribes that invaded the East Turkestan region, ended the Chinese domination in this region. Gokturks, who took the Altai region as their epicenter in the 6th century, came to the stage of history. Gokturks; He succeeded in establishing a vast empire that spanned all of Central Asia, crossing the Aral Sea in the west and Lake Baikal in the east. The Uyghurs, who are among the tribes that made the Orhun and Selenge valleys their home, also recognized their dominance when the Göktürk state was established.

The Göktürk Empire was divided into two as eastern and western khanates in 583. After this division, East Turkestan remained under the domination of the Western Göktürk Khaganate. The Tang Dynasty, which was established in 618 in China, showed a rapid spread in the region. The raids organized by the Chinese led to the collapse of the Western Göktürk Khaganate in 657.

With the support of the Uyghurs, Başmil and Karluk tribes, Kutluk enabled the Great Uyghur Khanate to appear on the stage of history in 744 under the leadership of Bilge Kül Kagan. After the Göktürks, the Tang Dynasty (which ruled in China between 618 and 907 AD), which was defeated by the Islamic army supported by the Uyghurs, Karluks and Kyrgyz in the Battle of Talas in 751, had to evacuate the Tarim Basin, that is, the present-day East Turkestan region.

The Uyghurs, who were seen as a very advanced civilized society for their time, were also famous for building a castle and fortification system that protected the capital Ordu-balık (also called Mübalik and Karabalsagun), which they established on the banks of the Orhun River, with an interlocking double wall system. In this technique, which later became a city system unique to the Turks, the castle was surrounded by the first wall, called the army (sur), while a second wall, called the fish, surrounded the first wall and the castle. This castle system was called army-fish. Ordu-fish is known as a castle style found only in Turks.

Uyghurs, who also have a developed written language, developed an identity quite different from the Turkish tribes in their own time, with their characteristic structure adopting settled life rather than nomadic life. Uyghurs, who switched to agricultural economy during the Uyghur Khanate, migrated from the Ordu-fish-centered Ötüken region to the east to the Tarim Basin, that is, to today's East Turkestan region, after the Khanate was destroyed by the Kyrgyz in 840. Uyghurs moved it mainly to Turfan and Urumçi in this region.

Following the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate, later Kansu Uyghurs (905-1226) and Karahoca Uyghurs (843-1368) established new states. Uyghurs, who were united with Karakhanids (840-1211) for a period, played an important role in the development of this khanate. During the Karakhanid period, known as the first Turkish-Islamic state, the spread of Islam among the Uyghurs began.

For more than a thousand years, the Uyghurs have preserved their existence in today's East Turkestan region as a tribe with a highly developed agricultural system compared to its period. "Turfan", which is one of the cities where Uyghurs live in today's East Turkestan, was used as the capital city by the Karahoca Uyghur Kingdom during the winter months.

Turfan is a historical trade center located on the ancient silk road, known for its marble roads. It is the oldest known water city and was established on the northern edge of the Turfan Basin. Ayding Lake, located in the deepest part of the basin, is approximately 155 meters below sea level. It is the second pit in the world after the Dead Sea basin. Turfan, one of the hottest residential areas in the world, is also called the "flame oasis". This area has historically been recognized as an agricultural oasis in the middle of the Gobi Desert. Turfan agricultural lands have been irrigated since ancient times by means of underground water channels (to prevent the water from evaporating due to the extreme temperatures), a total of 5 000 kilometers, called “karız” (probably from where the word “furrow” comes from). The kariz system, which enables the use of the melting snow waters from the Tian Shan for irrigation purposes, is an important invention that the Uyghurs brought to the Chinese culture. The fame of vegetables and fruits grown here before their season reached all Turkish and Arab lands in the past. NS The word 'turfanda' used in today's Turkish also comes from here.

The Uyghurs used the Göktürk alphabet at first, and later developed the Uyghur alphabet. The Uighur Turks, with their developed social structure, attracted the attention of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan benefited from the Uyghurs in the development process of the Mongolian Imperial system. The Uyghurs paid taxes to Genghis Khan and gave soldiers. On the other hand, the sovereignty of the Turfan - Urumqi region was left to the Civilized by Genghis Khan. Uyghurs, who served at the top levels in Mongolian administrations, had a felt effect on the Mongolian empire. The first alphabet used by the Mongols was the Uyghur alphabet, which was originally adapted to Mongolian. The Uighurs, who remained under the Chagatai Khanate from the Mongols that were divided into four after Genghis Khan, had a language that was integrated with the Chagatai language. Chagatai Turkish, which also influenced Uzbek and Uyghur, was used as the universal language of science and culture in Central Asia for many years, and even Fatih Sultan Mehmet used this language in his poems. Fatih's “Otluk Beli Fetihname” was written in Uyghur letters and Eastern Turkish. It is also known that there were printing presses and paper looms belonging to the Uighurs.

As we stated in our first article, we see that numerous states ruled in East Turkestan until the middle of the 18th century, and then, despite the interruptions, the Chinese dominated the region.

The traditional homeland of the Uyghurs, East Turkestan, today's Xinjiang (Xinjiang) Uyghur Autonomous Region, is in the northwest of China. This region is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region in the south, the Chinese provinces of Qinghai and Gansu in the southeast, Mongolia in the east, the Russian Federation in the north, Kazakhstan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the west under the control of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. With an area of ​​1 664 897 km², it is the largest administrative region of the People's Republic of China. Xinjiang is the largest administrative region of the People's Republic of China; It occupies more than one-sixth of China's total area. The region is divided by the Tianshan Mountains (Tanyan Mountains) into two basins (Chungarian and Tarim Basins). Its capital is Urumqi and the official languages ​​used in Xinjiang are Uyghur and Chinese.

During the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty founded by the Manchus, the name Xinjiang (Shinkyang or Xinjiang), meaning "New Frontier", was given to the region. However, this name was not accepted by the majority of Uyghurs from the beginning, and it was argued that the names "East Turkestan" or "Chinese Turkistan" should be used instead. The government of the People's Republic of China, on the other hand, did not allow the use of such names, claiming that they connoted separatism or Pan-Turkism.

The "Sky Flag", used by the East Turkestan Republic in the period of 1932-34, is the symbol of the East Turkestan independence movement and a symbol of unifying the Uyghurs. Similar to the use of the name 'East Turkestan', the use of this flag is also prohibited in China.

According to various sources, 12.5 - 13 million Uyghur Turks live in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, which is a completely Chinese 'colony' today, and in East Turkestan, which is a Chinese territory in the political sense. The population of Xinjiang was determined as approximately 25 million according to the 2018 census. Approximately 15 million of this population are Muslims (a total of 21 to 23 million Muslims live in China), which makes up 60% of the population living in Xinjiang. The Muslim population in question is predominantly Uighurs, and there are also Huis, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Mongols, and Tibetans. The rest of the population is Han Chinese, who came to the region in the last two centuries with the Chinese invasion movements. Ethnic groups, as a percentage, emerged according to the 2015 census as follows: Uighur – 48%, Han – 36.4%, Kazakh – 7%, Hui – 5%, Kyrgyz – 0.9%, Mongolian – 0.8%, Dongxiang – 0.3%, Pamir – 0.2% and Shiba – 0.2%.

The remarkable point in this distribution is that the Chinese population, which was around 7% in 1949, is now paralleled with the number of Uyghurs, as a result of the policies of the Chinese administrations towards the region, especially the encouragement of internal migration. This situation disturbs the Uyghur Turks living in East Turkestan. As a matter of fact, the basis of the protest demonstrations that took place in 1995 and attended by around 100 000 Uyghurs was the call for "end of the interventions in the population network" as well as the discourses of democratization and freedom.

The Hui, the second largest Muslim population in China after the Uyghurs, live in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, mainly in the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan. Their total population across China is 10.6 million.

The 'oppressive' policy followed by China in East Turkestan is followed by various circles and is brought to the world agenda by the international press from time to time. International Human Rights organizations and the nationalist Uyghurs advocating the independence of the Uighurs, the non-Han Chinese cult of the People's Republic of China in the region It continues its efforts to bring the claim that it keeps people under pressure to the world agenda.

On February 6, 1997, the Chinese government added the restriction of worship to some restrictions on the practice of Islam. As a result of these restrictions, which led to an increase in tension in East Turkestan, demonstrations increased, conflicts broke out between ethnic groups, numerous mosques were set on fire or closed to worship.

Some of the ongoing practices of “different” legal rules that still cause criticism of the Chinese administration are mentioned below, by way of example:

Article 70 of the Chinese Religious Affairs Ordinance obliges members of religious groups to obtain approval to travel abroad within the scope of "religious education, conferences, pilgrimages and other activities". Persons found to be conducting such activities without approval can be fined between $3100 and $30600. Incomes obtained illegally in connection with travel may also be confiscated, and in case of "criminal situation", criminal action will be taken within the framework of the law.

The regulation placed a limit on donations made by foreigners to religious groups. Such donations should be used for activities approved and deemed appropriate by the authorities. If donations from foreigners are given on condition that any conditions are met, then such donations cannot be accepted. All donations exceeding $15300 must be submitted to the local government for review and approval. Religious groups, religious schools and "religious activity centers" cannot accept such "conditional" donations from foreign sources.

In the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Republic, it is a crime by law for children under the age of 18 to participate in religious activities, attend schools operated by religious organizations, and receive special religious education in these schools.

Rabia Kadir, the leader of the World Uyghur Congress, continues to be the voice of the Uyghurs in the outside world. It is noteworthy that about 45 tests of nuclear-tipped explosives carried out by the Chinese in the territory of East Turkestan in the last 30 years, resulting in a large number of birth defects. Freedom demands and nuclear tests; It is one of the issues brought to the attention of the world community by the Uyghurs.

Xinjiang has been referred to as a politically problematic region for Chinese rulers from ancient times to the present. Ethnic differences, cultural diversity and religious differences in the region; These are the factors that make it difficult to establish a uniform state structure in this geography.

Chinese officials mentioned three basic administrative approaches to the management of East Turkestan in international platforms:

-- The first is that administrative autonomy will be preserved and the belonging of ethnic groups will be respected.

-- The second is to encourage the orientation towards a developed culture and to construct a common sense of belonging.

-- Third, the interests of the PRC are beyond the demands and needs of all individuals and groups.

This basic approach of Beijing; by partially postponing the understanding of the rule of law; It evokes a theory of the police state, which envisages the dissolution of differences within Chinese culture and characterizes all demands for freedom and human rights, which are likely to harm internal stability, as "divisive activities". In this respect, Beijing policies are not generally accepted by the Uyghurs.

(To be continued)

References that we used in this article:

Dickens M. (1987). The Soviets in Xinjiang 1911-1949, <https://web.archive.org/web/20081023203643/http://www.oxuscom.com/sovinxj.htm>, p.e.t.8.9.2021.

Zhao T. (2021). How many Uighurs living in China want independence?, August 26, <https://www.quora.com/How-many-Uighurs-living-in-China-want-independence/answer/Tiancheng-Zhao?ch=3&oid= 304165502&share=2dc9ba51&srid=usBSds&target_type=answer>, set8.9.2021.

BASE. Department of State Report, 2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: China—Xinjiang, <https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/china/xinjiang/>, set8.9. 2021.

Sevim A. and Mercil E. (1995). History of Seljuk States, Turkish Historical Society Publications XXIV. Serial, Sa. 19, Turkish Historical Society Press, Ankara.

Oralli L.E. (2012). The Sincan Uyghur Crisis, pp.323-336, in Çakmak H. (2012) 42 Crisis in Turkish Foreign Policy, Crypto Publications, 1st Edition, Ankara

Uyghur Khaganate, <https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uygur_Kağanlığı>, p.e.t.8.9.2021.