Turkistan Cultural Synthesis: Intellectual Topography - Evaluation Session of the Third Congress on Turkish Islamic Political Thought

At the 3rd Congress on Turkish Islamic Political Thought from the 18th Century to the Present Day (9-10 October 2025, Aksaray), I stated that I would explain what is meant by the ‘Turkistan Cultural Composition’ by providing information based on the paper I presented.

I would like to present a ‘trial’ explanation of this composition in order to lay the foundations for the ‘Re-establishing Philosophy in Anatolia’ project. I hope this will help me explain the premises of the philosophical foundation of the proposition that ‘we came from Inner Asia as Turks, remained as Turks in Anatolia-Near East, and created the Mediterranean Civilisation as Turks’. For what I mean by the expression ‘Turkistan Cultural Synthesis’ is not merely a historical geography, but also the intellectual structure formed by the systems of knowledge, belief, and values shaped within this geography, as well as the political units that put this into practice.

Understanding this synthesis is important for grounding our reading of the legacy of the ancient civilisations of Anatolia, which we brought with us from our ancestral homeland, alongside the offerings of contemporary Western philosophy, and for making new openings while paying attention to the possible risks. This is because this combination broadens our horizons, as it indicates that Central/Inner Asia was not only the ‘Central Eurasia’ but also the trade and cultural centre of the ancient world (Asia-Europe-North Africa). At the same time, it points to the Turkish mind acting in concert with the Persian and Arab minds, evaluating the data of Hellenistic philosophy and establishing ethical-political units (the Ghaznavids, the Great Seljuks – the Seljuks of Kirman, Anatolia, Iraq and Syria, the Ottomans and the Republic of Turkey). This reveals the theoretical dimension of the conceptualisation of ‘intellectual topography’ and the processes and spaces of its implementation. Therefore, it is important in terms of revealing how the Turks ‘made the lands they conquered their homeland,’ that is, their connection to land/homeland, language and culture.

I consider this series of conferences, held in Aksaray in 2015, in Kastamonu in 2017, and, God willing, in Kırıkkale next year under the coordination of Professor Hasan Yaylı, to be extremely important in terms of benefiting from the perspectives of academics working in political science and international disciplines. political science, and international disciplines. This is because it provides an opportunity to update the public and social dimensions of the Turkish rule that began with the Ghaznavids in the ancient world, gained momentum with the Seljuks, transformed into a world power with the Ottomans, and lasted for approximately a thousand years.

Considering that the Republic of Turkey is the final link in this continuity, I believe that these activities aimed at mapping the geopolitics and geoculture of the Turkic world will contribute to generating solutions to today's problems and strengthen the ‘Turkic consciousness’. With your permission, I would like to elaborate a little on the points I made during the evaluation session (10.10.2025).

Reading Classical Texts for the Geopolitical and Geocultural Map of the Turkic World

It would be beneficial for at least one session at next year's congress to focus on the method of reading classical texts that have influenced the shaping of public life. With this concern in mind, I translated and published John Passmore's text ‘The Writing and Philosophy of History’ in the Conservative Thought Journal, which Professor Baytekin had begun publishing, based on my acquaintance with him from the political science and public administration congresses of the Liberal Thought Society in 2006. Baytekin, whom I knew from the political science and public administration conferences of the Liberal Thought Society, began publishing the Conservative Thought Journal, in which I translated and published John Passmore's text entitled ‘The Writing and Philosophy of History’. It outlined the methods of approaching and examining works on ancient philosophical theories in several different ways. (Reprint: The Historical and Universal Reading of the Qur'an, Fecr Publishing House, 3rd Edition, 2017, 393 ff)

The Method of Reading Classical Texts

When the issue of methodology came up at the conference, following R.H. Aksungur's suggestion, a highly competent discussion took place yesterday (15 October 2025) in the doctoral course on the methodology developed by Bîrûnî. As is well known, it is one of the foremost works to be called a ‘classic/timeless/immortal work’ because it is constantly reread and provides opportunities to develop new perspectives. To quote G. Sarton, ‘Biruni is the greatest scientist of the period between the Ancient Age and the European Renaissance.’

Bîrûnî (362/978-453/1061), who worked in mathematics, trigonometry, astronomy, physics, geology, psychology, mineralogy, pharmacology, and comparative religious history, His work Kitâb'üt-Tahkîk mâ li'l-Hind has become an immortal/classic work that is read to this day. To quote W. M. Watt, it is a fine example of ‘the connection between ideas and events’. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni had conquered the Indus basin, the Ganges valley and the region extending south to the Indian Ocean (1002-1026). Biruni took a keen interest in this new geography opening up before the Islamic world, and this work emerged.

This text can be seen as a preliminary examination, from a geopolitical and geocultural perspective, of the regions that the Turkish mind aimed to conquer. Because when Mahmud of Ghazni turned his attention to India, he learned Sanskrit there, as well as traditional Indian history, Indian sciences (such as astronomy and astrology), and customs and traditions (belief in God, the doctrine of avatars, the caste system, rules specific to castes, sacred places, etiquette for visiting them, sacrifice and atonement ceremonies, religious holidays, days of fasting, practices related to marriage and death).

In addition, he studied mathematics, astronomy, physics, various natural sciences, positive sciences, and geography, and also engaged in medicine and experimental physics. Here, one can also see his method; he is seen to possess a love of truth, critical thinking, keen observation, and a surprising openness and objectivity towards world cultures. He states that observation is based on evaluating the object at the right time and place, and he develops his method by analysing various forms of testimony. He considers fairness and accuracy to be the most fundamental characteristics. When Biruni did not understand a subject or could only explain part of it, he would state this clearly, apologise, and promise to explain the matter elsewhere. He drew clear lines around the limits of his knowledge.

A similar situation can be seen in the request for information about Persian tradition from Ibn al-Balhi, a financial bureaucrat during the reign of Sultan Mehmed Tapar, one of the Seljuk leaders who took over the banner of Turkish consciousness from the Ghaznavids. Ibn al-Belhi was an important bureaucrat and scholar who grew up in the Persian court alongside his grandfather. Originally from Balkh, he states that he was educated in Pars and learned tax laws and practices there. Belhî wrote Beyânü’l-Edyân (485/1092), a work on the history of the first milel and nihâl, that is, religions and sects. Please note the following statements, which reflect the belief in one God at the time: 'The Turks call God Tengri. They call him Bir Tengri, meaning One God (Yekî Hodâ), and Kök Tengri, meaning Great God (Hodây-i Asmân). I have also heard that [the Turks] call God Uluğ Bayat, which means “the greatest of all the great ones”. In this precise translation of Kök-Tengri, it is important not to overlook the translations Yekî Hodâ and Hodây-i Asmân; the word asmân means “sky” in Persian. (Pârs-nâme, Introduction, Translation and Notes, R.H. Aksungur, (Istanbul: Post Publishing House, 2023), 7-14, 20.67-70, 123, Abu'l-Ma'ali Nimetullah Fakih Belhi, Bayânü'l-Edyân, 137, Chrestomathie Persane I, ed. Ch. Schefer, Paris, 1883. I would like to thank my teacher RH Aksungur for providing me with the text currently in the process of being published in Turkish). This is an extremely important observation in terms of showing the transition from pre-Islamic to post-Islamic times.

If you ask why Biruni is important in terms of examining classical texts, it is because he prioritises verifying the history of events according to chronological principles and determining whether the information is accurate. In this respect, his chronological tables and the information he provides are quite important. He is extremely meticulous and successful in his source research. He bases his information either on written sources or on witnesses.

Methodologically, he begins each section with a brief introduction, followed by lengthy quotations from Sanskrit works on religious beliefs and practices, or information on literature, history, geography, and law that he has personally observed. In the third part, he focuses on similarities with Islamic, Greek or Iranian thought and makes comparisons to ensure a better understanding of the subject. Sometimes he briefly reiterates his thoughts on the subject at the end of the section. In summary, each section is written according to a well-thought-out plan from beginning to end. The work is written within a geometric plan; there are no randomly written sentences or unnecessarily lengthy expressions. Rather than simply relaying accounts from past periods, he has attempted to verify and understand them from different sources, rejecting those he found contrary to reason and the laws of nature.

In addition to his knowledge of the positive sciences, he draws attention to the dangers of slander aimed at rejecting opposing views in the humanities/spiritual disciplines. From a theological perspective, Biruni suggests that when examining views on different sects within the same religion, attention should be paid to the close relationship and familiarity with the teachings between them. This is because it facilitates understanding. Errors and distortions concerning religions and ideas that are completely foreign to each other in terms of their general or specific characteristics, and between which there is little connection or commonality, do not come to light but remain hidden. The observation that the treatises and books on sects and religions in our possession are full of such distortions is important for all human disciplines. (Ebû Reyhân Muhammad b. Ahmed al-Birûnî, Kitâb'üt-Tahkîk mâ li'l-Hind: India Through the Eyes of Birûnî. Trans. Kıvameddin Burslan. Edited by Ali İhsan Yitik. (Ankara: Turkish Historical Society, 3rd Edition, 2023, Introduction, XIII-XXII)

Master's and Doctoral Theses for Academic and Cultural Contact with the Turkish World

One of the most encouraging pieces of news I received at the conference was that young people from the Turkish world were pursuing master's and doctoral degrees in public administration and political science. Even those working with Professor Özgür Önder are sufficient for a session; that is, if possible, if they can present their thesis abstracts, the data they have obtained, and the results they have reached, they can obtain more useful information for their theses, and we can also benefit from those presentations. By requesting support from TİKA and the Turkish Community Abroad, even if only a few people, we can benefit from the knowledge of academics abroad. Professor Mehmet Akıncı mentioned an Azerbaijani academic; meeting, getting to know, and discussing with him and similar scholars could lead to new developments.

Rethinking ‘Anatolian Tevâif-i Mülûk’ in the Context of Public Administration and Political Science

At the evaluation meeting, it may be useful to allocate a couple of sessions to begin examining the Beylik period, known as Tevâif-i Mülûk (Mülk), in order to understand Anatolian cultural heritage at new congresses. It is possible to examine the solutions proposed when the main political structure entered a process of disintegration, alongside the harmony between theory and practice in the Turkish mind, within the context of ‘tevâif-i mülk’. This shows the plurality-spatiality relationship in the different solutions proposed to preserve our intellectual topography, that is, the identity of thought and homeland.

The Turkification and Islamisation of Anatolia accelerated from 1071 onwards with the emergence of the principalities. In addition to their struggles with the Byzantines, Armenians and Georgians, they were also the architects of the construction and urbanisation activities in the Near East, and their importance in terms of public and social development is well known. Anatolia's incorporation into the Islamic world and the Seljuks' commercial policies opened up trade routes to the countries north of the Black Sea, leading to the flourishing of the Silk Road trade. Caravans from Anatolia, Khorasan, and Iraq-i Acem travelled to Kirman, from where their goods were transported via the ports of Kirman to India, China, and other destinations.

During our arrival in Anatolia, the chaos that began in Turkistan with the Seljuks' defeat by the Kara Khitai (Western Liao Dynasty) in Katvan in 536/1141 had a profound impact. This war paved the way for the collapse of the Great Seljuks and also led to the entire Islamic world being plunged into political, social and economic crises. Thus, with no rivals left to oppose them, the Kara-Khitans seized all of Transoxiana up to the right bank of the Jaxartes River.

The conflict between two Turkic states, the Seljuks and the Khwarezmian Empire, was a significant factor in the victory of the Kara-Khitans. The Seljuk Turks existed as different states across various regions (the Seljuks of Khorasan, the Seljuks of Iraq, the Seljuks of Syria, the Seljuks of Anatolia). This was because, following the establishment of the Great Seljuk Empire, a council was convened and, in accordance with the old Turkish concept of sovereignty, the lands conquered up to that point and those planned to be conquered in the future were divided among the members of the dynasty. During this division, the Kirman region had already been given to Kavurd, the son of Çağrı Bey.

Sultan Malikshah granted Syria and the neighbouring regions to be conquered to his brother Tutuş in 471 (1078). Mahmûd b. Muhammed Tapar, the first ruler of the Seljuks of Iraq, was fourteen years old when he was enthroned in Isfahan (511/1118) and had received a good education. Süleyman Shah, son of Kutalmış, grandson of Arslan Yabgu, established the Anatolian Seljuk State with Iznik as its capital (1075-1080).

In this context, as someone from Çorum, a city belonging to the Danismend Beylicate, it occurred to me when I visited the tomb of Melik Mahmut Gazi Han, who lies in the cemetery of Somuncu Baba, the tomb of Nizameddin Yağıbasan in Aksaray. It is well known that he had a mint, meaning that minting coins was one of the symbols of statehood. Remembering that the Karaman-Aksaray region was part of the Assyrian Trade Route since ancient times, namely the Middle Bronze Age, it is essential to read about the effectiveness of the Danismendid principalities in the region, the mosques, caravanserais, madrasas/schools they built, and their political and cultural heritage. The Artukids, the Saltukids, Mengüceklis, and, in terms of seafaring, the Çaka Beyliği's role in public and social life are significant.

Detailed studies should be conducted on these, namely the Tevâif-i Mülûk States in Anatolia, as efforts to minimise the damage caused by the chaos that emerged after the Battle of Köse Dağ (641/1243) and the subsequent loss of central authority by the Anatolian Seljuk State to the Mongols. Therefore, analysing the chaos and damage that emerged in Anatolia after the defeat at Köse Dağ and in the Turkistan region after the Battle of Katvan is important in terms of the precautions we should take and the pitfalls we should avoid when faced with similar situations today.

Our priority is to investigate the philosophical foundations of the states established by the Turkish mind in terms of publicisation and socialisation, which triggered their own destruction by turning against each other, and the principalities that emerged afterwards in the context of the relationship between essence and identity (intention). Explaining this goes beyond the scope of an essay. However, to give an example based on Çorum, we had discussed with friends whether it was necessary to be active in the Turkish Association or the Intellectuals' Association. The fact that the Çorum Intellectuals' Association was independent and that we would not need anyone's approval for the activities we would carry out influenced our preference. The intervention of the central Turkish Cultural Centre in the activities of the Istanbul Turkish Cultural Centre and its attempt to remove our teacher Dr Cezmi Bayram from his position also demonstrated the consistency of our choice. (https://medyascope.tv/2022/06/28/kilicdaroglu-imamoglu-ve-kaftancioglu-sempozyuma-katildigi-icin-gorevden-alinan-turk-ocaklari-istanbul-sube-baskani-medyascopea-konustu -gorusu-bize-benzemese-bile-dogruyu-gostermek-turk-o/ )

The region came under Ilkhanid rule, and the principalities were initially subordinate to this, then transformed into independent city-states, one of which was the Ottoman Principality, as is well known. Kadı Burhâneddin Firaseti, whom I constantly emphasise, should be remembered for his rationality and wise leadership (1381–1398) during this period of turmoil in the struggle between global powers. Kadı Burhâneddin, who was vizier in the Eratna principality, established his own city-state some time later. He then fought for 18 years to preserve the independence of his beylik against the major powers of the time, which were again Turkish beyliks: the Ottomans, the Karamanoğulları and the Akkoyunlular.

Of course, he also fought against the Mamluk State and the Timurids, which were major powers of the time. It is even said that he was one of the important rulers of the era whom Timur himself feared. Sources describe him as having a strong character, being talented, learned, fair, intelligent, a patron of scholars, as well as a good soldier and a brave ruler. Given the circumstances he found himself in, his consolidation of the state's military and civil powers in his own hands may be an interesting example from today's perspective. After his campaigns, he undertook reconstruction activities in the places he conquered and took the necessary measures to revive economic life. He attached great importance to ensuring security on the roads and was reluctant to impose new taxes.

When we refer to him as a wise ruler, we mean not only his leadership but also his close involvement with literature, especially poetry, and his large Divan, consisting of ghazals, tuyugs and quatrains. His pioneering role in applying the aruz metre to Turkish and the emergence of Divan poetry should be examined separately in terms of Turkish philosophy.

Rethinking ‘Mısır Tevâif-i Mülûk’ in the Context of International Relations and Political Science: The Eastern Mediterranean

In the evaluation session, Eastern Mediterranean trade has been at the centre of political struggles since ancient times. I believe that the Akkoyunlu State, which defeated the Karakoyunlu State with its capital in Diyarbakır, brought Tabriz to the fore, followed by the Ottomans, who defeated them, and then the Safavid and Mamluk states, all vying for dominance of Eastern Mediterranean trade. Considering our 16 years of tension with Egypt and our rapprochement with them, as well as the events in Lebanon and Gaza, I had said that the concept of Tevâif-i Mülûk in Egypt needed to be updated. Indeed, the signing of the ‘Letter of Intent’ on 13 October 2025 in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, by US President Donald Trump, Egyptian President Abdulfettah es Sisi, Emir of Qatar Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani and Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan can be read as a current reflection for Egypt and Turkey.

Let us recall our historical knowledge: a similar situation is occurring here in Anatolia. With the weakening of the central authority of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258), rulers affiliated with the Abbasids (Emir'ül Umera) established their own principalities in Egypt: the Tulunids and the Ikhshidids (Akhshids). These are well-known Turkish states. Considering that the Mamluk State was also ruled by predominantly Kipchak Turks and Circassians, the historical foundations of the Turkish influence in the document become apparent in terms of resolving commercial conflicts in the Eastern Mediterranean.

The ‘Re-establishing Philosophy in Anatolia’ project should be understood in this context as an elaboration of the proposition: ‘We came from Inner Asia as Turks, we remained as Turks in the Near East, and we created the Mediterranean Civilisation as Turks.’ The Republic of Turkey is the inheritor of this political and cultural legacy. Without it, economic and political stability in the Mediterranean, especially the Eastern Mediterranean, and in Eurasia is impossible. Because the Turks are ‘leader races’. Leader races are nations that rule over other peoples. In world history, the Romans, Turks, and Mongols are among these. (Rene Grousset, Stepper Empires: Attila, Genghis Khan, Timur, trans. Halil İnalcık, ed. Ertuğrul Tokdemir, Mustafa Dönmez, Ankara: TTK Yayını, 5th edition, 2024, 10)

Turkistan Cultural Composition

Christopher I. Beckwith states that understanding the West's perception of the Migration of Peoples requires analysing the changes that took place within the context of the ‘Central Asian Cultural Composition.’ Aksungur's warning that ‘cultural composition risks dissolving us among other crowds’ is significant at this point.

Speaking of the Turkic tribes, "Identities are manifestations of the same essence and intention in different times and places. Philosophically, in its broadest sense, intention, alongside ‘identity and existence,’ also means ‘essence, nature, and substance.’ Leaving the discussion of this to another article, let us make some general explanations:

The ‘Great Migration of Nations’ brought almost all of Western Europe into the sphere of the Central Asian Cultural Complex, which extended as far as Japan. As will be recalled, in the mid-sixth century, the Persian and Roman empires were at war with each other, and both East Asia and Western Europe were divided into feudal principalities. Following the dynamics of the Central Asian Cultural Complex myth in the Eastern Steppes, the Turks, namely the Göktürks, overthrew their overlords, the Avars, crushed their remnants, and drove them to the depths of Eurasia.

In doing so, they united all the surrounding civilisations of Eurasia through their urbanised essence, namely Central Asia. Central Asia became the trade and cultural centre not only of ‘Central Eurasia’ but of all Eurasia. Due to their insistence on trade, the Göktürks used their military power to drive their people into trade, and with their dominance over much of Central Asia, the Central Asian economy – the Silk Road – flourished as never before. The importance of the Germanic and Mongol migrations into the Roman and Chinese Empires is seen in the restoration of the Central Asians' understanding of statehood:

There were no borders between Central Asia and the surrounding lands, and people moved freely from the countryside to the city and from the city to the countryside, regardless of ethno-linguistic and political divisions. However, the results were different in the East and West; the reason for this was probably the relatively small Roman population in the Western Roman Empire compared to the high proportion of Chinese population living in Northern China. (Silk Road Empires: Central Asian History from the Bronze Age to the Present, (translated by Kürşat Yıldırım, Ankara: ODTÜ Yayıncılık, 2011, 81,96, 11-15, 128-130)

To understand this perspective, which I refer to as the ‘Turkistan Cultural Composition,’ it is necessary to consider the founding of the Asian Hun (Hiung-nu) State by Teoman (Chinese: 頭曼單于 Touman; reigned 220 BC - 209 BC) and its peak under his son, Mete Khan (209 BC - 174 BC). and its subsequent division into North and South, followed by its disintegration, necessitates attention to the movements of the Northern Huns. This is because the Turkish migrations led to significant social and public changes in Europe. The European Hun ruler Attila's campaigns against both the Holy Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) shook the balance of Europe, triggering migration movements and other events that resulted in the division of Rome into East and West. The fact that the Western Roman Empire, unable to withstand the Hun invasions, fell in 476 AD, and the Eastern Roman Empire was destroyed by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, demonstrates the place of the Turks in world history.

As is well known, after the 2nd century AD, the great empires of Antiquity began to collapse. The Goths, Slavs, Vandals, Franks, Burgundians, Angles, Saxons, and Lombards migrated to the Balkans, Central Europe, and the regions known as England and France. The peoples of Northern Eurasia began to migrate southwards. For those who find the classification of world history into ancient, medieval, and modern periods consistent, the end of the ancient period and the beginning of the medieval period are said to coincide with this migration of peoples.

This extensive historical event, known as the ‘Great Migration of Peoples,’ largely resulted in Germanic communities flowing into the western part of the ancient Roman Empire; while the Chionites, Hephthalites, and others, about whom little is known, entered the Central Asian territories of the Persian Empire; the predominantly Mongol peoples, meanwhile, headed north into China.

Although it is very difficult to know and determine the cause of this movement, its consequences brought about fundamental changes for Western Europe and ultimately for Eurasia and world civilisation as a whole. The most notable of these migrations was that of the Huns under Balamir, who took over the dominance of the Ball Steppes from the Alans and Goths using traditional steppe methods. They drove those who did not submit to their rule into the heart of Europe. They also defeated the Ostrogoths, who ruled a vast empire to which 17 tribes (the Veneti, the Belts on the eastern seaboard, the Finno-Ugric Merya, the Mordvin Mescera, and the Iranians, Germans, etc.) paid tribute. After the defeat of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, the Huns fought against the Eastern Roman Empire. Attila and Bleda established the European Hun Empire.

To understand European history, it is important to remember that the kings of foreign tribes, who increased their knowledge, experience and exposure in Attila's Hun capital, declared their independence after his death and settled in Central Europe and Italy, dividing the territory between them. (Ali Ahmetbeyoğlu, ‘The Huns of Europe’, History of Eastern Europe, ed. Osman Karatay - Serkan Acar, (Istanbul: Kitabevi, 3rd edition, 2016), 107, 181, Peter B. Golden, An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples, trans.: Osman Karatay, (Çorum: KaraM Publications, 2nd edition 2006, 133)

Conclusion

To examine the philosophical foundations of the connection between Turkistan Cultural Composition and Inner Asia/Atayurt-Turkey (Near East, Motherland), it is necessary to study this in coordination with political science, public administration, and international disciplines.

I begin the course on the History of Turkish Thought with four maps, within the context of the question of what the chronological (historical) examination of the history of thought can tell us today (constructive judgments). The first map shows the migrations of the Turkic tribes in the ancient world, the second shows the movements of the Huns in Asia and Europe, the third is the Great Seljuk Empire, and the fourth is the Ottoman Empire. We demonstrate the observation that ‘we came from Inner Asia as Turks, we remained Turks, and we created the Mediterranean civilisation while remaining Turks’ through these maps.

It is extremely important to examine the effects of the Turkistan Cultural Complex (Asia-Europe and North Africa) in the Turkish-Islamic Political Thought Congresses with the disciplines of public administration, political science, international relations, and theology. Because, in our view, this is how we can contribute to generating solutions to the problems experienced by drawing up the ‘Geopolitical and Geocultural Map of the Turkic World’.