International Dimension of Migration

Although the phenomenon of international migration is a sociological phenomenon that has been encountered throughout human history, international migration is a policy area that is a subject of political agenda in terms of both its causes and consequences, and is increasingly important, in which many scientists from anthropologists to sociologists, planners to administrators, political scientists to economists, historians to geographers are dealt with its increasing dimensions. International migration is a complex management issue.

The first major mass migration event in history, which manifested itself as the invasion of the European Continent by the Germanic tribes who fled from here as a result of the settlement of the Huns, who moved westward to get rid of the domination of the Chinese state in the middle of the 4th century, to the north of the Black Sea, laid the foundations of today's European states. accepted as the Migration of Tribes.

In the 15th and 18th centuries, European traders brought about 15 million people from North Africa to South America, the Caribbean islands and Brazil to work as slaves. Thus, Europe has guided the world's migration movements for three centuries. In general, XVI. century XIX. Until the beginning of the century, Europe provided the labor power it needed through enslavement.

America has been seen as the land of opportunity, offering incoming immigrants the opportunity to become independent farmers and traders. For this reason, the United States has often been seen as the most important of all immigrant countries.

The reasons for international migration can be summarized under four main headings:

1. Different demographic characteristics between countries,

2. Cyclical crises of capitalism,

3. Income differences between regions,

4. Economies forced into global restructuring.

1951 Geneva Refugee Convention- 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees:

The refugee problem started to come to the fore with the First World War, II. The problem grew with World War II and reached its peak during the Cold War. The concept of the right to asylum was included in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. But the first regulation regarding refugees is the 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Legal Status of Refugees. The purpose of the 1951 Refugee Convention, signed in Geneva after the Second World War, was to reshape Europe after the war. After World War II, 7 million Europeans left their country and migrated to other places. With this contract, it was tried to ensure that these people return to their homes. This Convention was deemed inadequate in terms of its content, and later, with the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Legal Status of Refugees, it was established to provide international protection for refugees and to find permanent solutions to the problems of refugees, and the definition and position of refugees were rearranged. According to the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee:

It refers to people who are outside the country of their citizenship and who cannot or do not want to return to their country of citizenship because they "fear of being persecuted for good reasons because of their race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion".

According to the 1951 Geneva Convention, people who are in the above-mentioned situations as a result of events before 1951 are considered refugees, that is, there is a date limitation; because, as stated before, the contract, II. It aims to return the Europeans who left their country after World War II to their countries. The protocol signed in 1967 abolished the date limitation.

The period after the Second World War; It has been described as the "age of migration" that surrounds the whole world with the effect of rapid and continuous economic growth. Losing millions of people in two great wars, the West met the manpower required for its reconstruction by first encouraging immigration from neighboring countries. Workers who came to Western Europe from countries around Europe migrated through the “guest worker system”. The leading countries among these countries are Germany, France and England. The UK brought 90,000 workers, mostly men, from Italy with the “European Voluntary Worker” project. France established the "National Office of Migration" (ONI) in 1945 to regulate the recruitment of workers from Southern Europe.

After 1945, immigrants coming to Western Europe were accepted with the "guest worker" system, but after 1973, European countries saw the immigrants they accepted with this system as "unwanted guests" and wanted them to leave. Thus, most of the European states have declared themselves as “zero immigration countries”. The reasons for the European countries to adopt such a policy on immigration can be explained by three interrelated reasons:

-- As a result of migrations, new and ethnically diverse populations have emerged in Europe.

-- As a result of family reunification and permanent settlement of immigrants, second and third generations born in Europe have emerged.

-- With the emergence of the second and third generations, a sense of community has been formed and there has been a segregation within the country.

International migration movements; Until the Cold War period, it was observed that it was generally organized according to the laws of the receiving country and mostly formed from Europe to other continents or to the colonies of European countries. But after the Cold War, international migration movements are generally large scale, due to economic, political and security problems; typically developed as movements from underdeveloped and developing countries, especially towards Europe and the West.

According to the United Nations International Migration data, while 3.1% of the world's population was immigrants in 2010, the ratio of the number of immigrants in the more developed regions to the total population was 10.3; the rate in less developed regions is 1.5. 32.6% of the total immigrants in the world are in Europe and 23.4% are in North America. The rate of the USA is about 20%. Other developed countries such as Germany, France and Italy have higher rates compared to other countries. This situation in the phenomenon of international migration shows that migration is from developing or underdeveloped countries to developed countries. Because for those living in developing countries, many rich countries, especially North America and Europe-countries, are seen as their dream destinations.

International Mobility-Irregular migration “illegal migration”:

As the prominent features of contemporary international migrations; It is seen that migration is increasingly globalized, accelerated, differentiated, feminized and politicized. In other words; immigration has grown in volume all over the world, affecting more countries; labor force tends to be all of these rather than a refugee or settler type. Women began to participate more in migration movements. International migration has been an important factor in the determination of national security policies because it has started to show a feature that develops against the laws of the target countries.

The international human mobility experienced today is called "irregular migration" or "illegal migration". Globalization process, Iranian Revolution, Iran-Iraq War, disintegration of Soviet Union (USSR) and Yugoslavia, Afghanistan War, Gulf War, Arab Awakening and Syrian Civil War; paved the way for irregular migration. On the one hand, security concerns such as the inability of underdeveloped and developing countries to provide adequate social and economic opportunities to their growing populations, wars and regional tensions; On the other hand, as a result of labor shortages, aging problem and strict immigration policies of European countries, a dramatic increase has been observed in the number of refugees and asylum seekers as well as irregular/illegal migrations around the world.

The reason why human mobility that is experienced intensely today is defined as "irregular migration" is that the characteristics of immigrants can change at any time and therefore it is not possible to predict who they are, when, how and in what direction they will move. Irregular migration, which conflicts with the laws of nation-states, is also called "illegal migration" in most cases. Three factors cause the definition of illegal immigration: The first is the method they use to enter or leave the country, in other words, the "illegal" crossing of the border. Secondly, their country's non-compliance with the laws regarding visa or residence permit. The third is that they do not comply with the laws that determine the working conditions of the country in which they are located.

In particular, with the increase in the number of Syrian refugees trying to go to Europe from Syria and border countries, government policies and practices that increase border security and control of migrant flow and restrict migration are discussed a lot today.

According to UNHCR's data; In 2018, the number of refugees worldwide reached 25.9 million, an increase of 500,000 from 2017. It is worrying that by the end of 2018, the figure of 3.5 million refugees worldwide was reached.

By emphasizing the 'illegality' of irregular migration in general, states consider this situation as a violation of their sovereign rights, including the presence of people who enter, work and stay on their lands without permission. In this sense, refugees have started to be discussed as a security phenomenon in immigration policies as a factor that threatens security for the nation-states receiving immigration. In addition, due to its connection with crimes such as irregular or illegal international migration, terrorism, migrant smuggling and human trafficking, it is seen as a security threat by target countries and encourages them to take serious measures in this regard.

While no protection measures are taken for illegal immigrants in the country they go to; protection measures are taken for refugees and asylum seekers in the country they go to. At the same time, while only sending back the illegal immigrant from an administrative point of view; For refugees and asylum seekers, one of the administrative procedures is applied, such as returning back, ensuring social cohesion or resettlement in a third country.

In many parts of the world, migrant smugglers have become an integral part of the irregular migration process. Immigrant smuggling reduces the ability of states to manage their borders, diverts migrants to dangerous migration routes and reaps huge profits from this situation. According to EUROPOL data, more than 90 percent of more than one million immigrants who reached the EU via irregular migration routes in 2015 received assistance from migrant smugglers during their journey.

Another important problem associated with the phenomenon of irregular migration is human trafficking. The detention of an individual against his will through coercion, coercion, violence or threat, his removal from one place to another, any kind of employment in any subject is considered human trafficking, and the person or networks that do this are considered human traffickers. According to the United Nations 2016 Global Human Trafficking report; There have been more than 500 different trafficking flows around the world. The report states that 42 percent of the identified victims of trafficking are domestic victims, and only the victims of trafficking identified in Western and Southern Europe come from 137 different countries of origin. In addition, in the report, the reasons for human smuggling are mentioned and the reasons are explained:

Forced labor, forced marriage, child conscription, prostitution, organ harvesting and child labour.

People who leave their country for security reasons threaten the security of the country they go to. These people affect the economic structures, political and social stability, military order, environment and environmental structure of the countries they visit. Refugees also affect the security of countries, as these factors are closely related to the phenomenon of security.

Especially since the mid-1990s, the influx of refugees from Eastern Europe and Africa to European countries is considered by a certain group as 'occupation of the poor' and 'attack on Europe'. In addition, new economic, social, political and cultural arguments are added, such as “Immigrants lower wages, increase unemployment among the indigenous population, collapse the social system with their fertility and endanger national identity.

Increasing border security is the most used method when states are struggling with irregular migration. In order to increase border security, walls are built and electrified wires are drawn on borders that carry high 'risk'.

Policies containing harsh laws are being developed against refugees, whose number has started to increase, in states such as the USA, Canada, Germany, France, England, Italy and the Netherlands, which "make entry and living conditions difficult and facilitate deportation from the country". America's immigration policies aimed to stop the illegal entry, work of asylum seekers and refugees. However, migrant workers have become the employers' choice because they work cheaply; Despite the sanctions imposed on employers and illegally working refugees and asylum seekers, their numbers have increased. According to UNHCR's report, by the end of 2020, there are 26.4 million refugees and 4.1 million asylum seekers in the world.

Despite the need for immigrants in their countries, the main reason for the desire of the European states to prevent illegal passages is the idea of ​​preventing the entry of unqualified foreigners who will not benefit them. Such approaches of European Union countries, which reveal the need for immigrants, give movement to illegal immigration. In the European Union, the issue of 'controlled and selective admission' is not discussed today, but whether or not European countries accept immigrants. At this point, it is necessary to briefly explain the Common European Asylum System, which is the common legal system that European countries have on refugees.

Common European Asylum System:

In the 1990s, the ongoing wars and conflicts all over the world, but especially in the Balkans, caused a great increase in the number of asylum applications and brought the issue to the forefront of the European Union's agenda. Germany, to which many people displaced due to the war in the former Yugoslavia, turned to, put serious pressure on other European countries to share responsibility and contribute. With the Amsterdam Agreement, which entered into force in May 1999 as a result of the pressure, it was aimed to create a common asylum system and close national differences, and to provide fair and equal common protection for refugees. While the governments promised to “respect for refugee rights” and “to abide by the 1951 Convention” in the final declaration, it was underlined that the European asylum system would rise on these values ​​and the vital principle of non-reoulment.

However, it is clear that European States want to prevent the entry of refugees that will not benefit them. Gillian Triggs, UNHCR's Deputy High Commissioner for Protection, where there are reports that the European asylum system will be built on these values ​​and that they do not implement the vital principle of non-refoulement, while the European states promised to “respect for refugee rights” and “to abide by the 1951 Convention” with the Amsterdam Agreement. specified by.

Gillian Triggs, UNHCR's Deputy High Commissioner for Protection, said in her speech on 28 January 2021 that “UNHCR has been receiving regular reports that some European states are restricting access to asylum, returning people after reaching their territory or territorial waters, and inflicting violence against them at the borders.” “The European Convention on Human Rights and EU law require states to protect people's right to asylum and protection from refoulement, even if they enter irregularly. Authorities cannot automatically refuse entry or send people back into the country without making an individual assessment of people in need of protection”. According to reports to UNHCR, he stated that push-backs were carried out violently and systematically, boats carrying refugees were pulled back, people were gathered and pushed back into the sea after people disembarked. “Respecting human life and refugee rights is not a choice but a legal and moral obligation. Countries are not involved in managing their borders in accordance with international law.

While it has human rights, it should also respect human rights. Pushbacks are absolutely illegal,” he said.

Policies developed by states for irregular migration are “readmission agreements” and “legalisations”. The main purpose of readmission agreements is to send irregular migrants back to where they came from, either in their own country or in the transit country they passed through. Legalization, on the other hand, are amnesty programs organized by the state to legalize immigrants' illegal stay or work. They are programs that are frequently used in some European countries, especially Italy, Spain and Greece. Research shows that 3.5 million immigrants in total benefited from these programs and legalized their status in EU countries between 1996 and 2008.

According to Filippo Grandi, UN High Commissioner for Refugees, the best solution for every refugee is; to return home voluntarily, safely and with dignity. Other solutions are to integrate into the host community or resettle in a third country. However, only 92,400 refugees were resettled in 2018, less than 7% of the number of people waiting to be resettled in a third country. 593,800 refugees were able to return home, and 62,600 refugees acquired citizenship in their new country of residence.

When the problem of mass international refugees arises, it is important that all states fulfill their responsibilities in the process of restoring peace and security. It is discussed that the method of asylum, which has been frequently used in recent years, both causes confusion in the country of asylum and is a great socio-economic burden for that country. It is not enough for these states to assume responsibility alone. Especially in mass refugee influxes, if the country of refuge is an underdeveloped or developing country, the opportunities provided by the country to the asylum seekers are not sufficient and it brings up the situation that refugees or asylum seekers are exposed to situations contrary to human rights (worse conditions than the countries they fled). The calls for shared responsibility for other states, both in the region and beyond, when refugees need international protection assistance will not cease.

International migration is complex and management policies vary from country to country. But the only constant aim is to ensure the continuity of the economic, social, political and cultural institutions of the states. In this sense, the center of international migration policies of states, as a prerequisite for self-protection and reproduction, is to keep incoming immigrants under control in terms of quantity and quality. According to the interests of the country, while the arrival of immigrants is encouraged more in some periods, sometimes on the basis of the interests of the country, the arrival of immigrants is tried to be prevented intensely and harshly. Migration histories of countries are shaped by this framework and different immigration policy practices that may change over time and will continue to be so.

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