Paris climate agreement

It is the arrow made of its own feather that shoots the eagle.
Native American Proverb

For the Paris Climate Agreement, within the framework of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, it is expressed as “an important opportunity to leave a world with a more stable, healthier planet, fairer societies and more vibrant economies” (European Union Delegation to Turkey).

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed in New York on 9 May 1992, is the world's first climate convention. Until the end of 2015, the most important legal regulation in the universal fight against global warming and climate change is the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement, on the other hand, is an important and valid international legal regulation that has replaced the two previous ones since 2015.
The Paris Agreement entered into force as of November 4, 2016, as a result of ensuring that at least 55 parties, which account for 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions, ratify the agreement. With Turkey becoming a party on 7 October 2021, 192 UNFCCC members are parties to the agreement. UNFCCC member states that have not ratified the agreement are Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Libya and Yemen. The Paris Agreement is an agreement that started in 2020 on the reduction, regulation and financing of greenhouse gas emissions under the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Paris Agreement's goal in the global climate challenge is to try to limit the global average temperature rise to 2 °C (3.6 °F) increase from pre-industrial levels, or even 1.5 °C.

United Nations Conference of the Parties on Climate Change COP26 was held in Glasgow, Scotland between 31 October - 12 November 2021. "I think today we can say we are keeping the 1.5C target achievable. Only if we keep our promises will we be able to survive. Here in Glasgow, history has been made. Now we need to ensure that the next chapter demonstrates the success of the commitments we have made here." (Alok Sharma, President of COP26). The results from COP26 can be summarized as follows. Recognizing that they are not doing enough to reduce emissions, the polluting countries of the world have decided to meet again next year for emission reduction plans to make the 1.5C target achievable. For the first time in an international agreement, the limitation of coal use has come to the fore. Financial aid for developing countries has been promised to increase. Alok Sharma considered the agreement a victory as a COP text included a statement about coal for the first time. However, Lars Koch, policy director of the Action Aid charity, said it was disappointing that only coal was mentioned in the deal, saying the deal "offers a pass for rich countries that have polluted the environment for a century to produce petrol and gas."

Key Features of the Paris Climate Agreement:
•  It has been decided to implement policies to keep global warming below 2 degrees Celsius and to limit it to 1.5 degrees as much as possible.
•  The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities”, which is determined for developed and developing countries and developed depending on the social and economic conditions of the countries, has been adopted.
•  It has been decided to make binding commitments that will trigger all parties to announce their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) and take measures to achieve these goals.
•  It was requested that all countries regularly prepare reports on the emission amounts, implementation of NDCs and progress in their targets, and submit the reports to international evaluation.
•  It has been decided that each country should prepare new NDCs every 5 years, which are expected to show improvement compared to the previous one.
•  It has been decided to extend the commitment of developed countries to support developing countries, to mobilize 100 billion dollars of financing every year until 2020 until 2025, and to set a higher target for after 2025.
•  It was decided to determine and minimize the losses and damages caused by climate change.
•  The parties engaged in international emissions trading were requested to do the necessary work to prevent double counting.

Discussion Areas of the Paris Climate Agreement

The main weakness of the Paris Agreement is considered to be the deep gap between the purpose of the Agreement and the agreed criteria to achieve it. This gap even causes climate activists, climate justice advocates and even climate scientists to characterize the Agreement with concepts such as dishonesty and nonsense. ir. Although the Paris Agreement is actually a legally binding arrangement, when evaluated within the framework of law and justice, it is thought to be a binding problem. Because the agreement does not include a binding and consequential obligation for the parties regarding the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The parties set their reduction contribution targets on the basis of their national conditions, and the Agreement operates on the voluntary contributions of the parties rather than mandatory and binding reduction targets. Another point that is also discussed is that there is no provision regarding the sanction or coercive measure to be applied to the related party or parties in case the obligations in the agreement are not fulfilled or the provisions of the Agreement are violated. In short, the bindingness of the agreement has been criticized for not having the qualifications to protect the rights of vulnerable communities. Ensuring compliance with the agreement is largely left to the initiative and goodwill of the parties.

Renewable energy sources, which the EU is trying to develop as clean energy sources in order to create and diversify energy sources, require investments. In this context, the financial support of developed countries that are party to the Paris Agreement to developing countries has been the subject of discussion. Each country party to the Paris Agreement has agreed to work together to adapt to the effects of the changing climate and reduce global warming, and to make available the annual $100 billion that will be collected in the Green Climate Fund to achieve these goals. In other words, developed countries have agreed to provide financial aid to developing countries. However, the latest Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Oxfam reports, 2018 data show that developed countries are not meeting their obligations to provide climate finance of US$100 billion per year for developing countries starting in 2020. According to these reports, only about a quarter of total climate finance has been provided. The Paris Agreement did not provide financing assistance to help countries that are most vulnerable and most affected by climate change to mitigate and adapt. Developed party countries gave priority to their national interests and did not fulfill their promise of 100 billion USD annually until 2020, which is required for renewable energy resources investments of developing countries. This development confirms the interpretation of the Paris Agreement as a flexible and soft framework for countries. This means that countries only "contribute" to the agreement, taking into account their national policies, rather than their mandatory commitments to the Paris Agreement, and no sanctions will be imposed on the countries. As a result, both the "Nationally Determined Contributions" (NDC) or "National Statements of Intent" towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and the implementations of the Paris Agreement are insufficient.

The conclusion to be reached within the framework of these discussions is as follows: Scientists and environmentalists are in a panic about the pollution of our world and they think that the Paris Climate Agreement to include stricter and more compelling provisions will be the solution. On the other hand, the industrialized and developed countries, which ensured the Paris Climate Agreement and in their fight against global climate change, do not want to compromise their economies. The contradiction of the developed countries that are party to the Paris Agreement is what is more important. They are faced with the dilemma of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in order to keep the global temperature below 2 degrees or maintaining the prosperity of their national economies. While this situation hinders the failure of promises and the industrialization process of developing countries, it also means economic imbalances and uncertainties that may occur as a result of different and new investments.

As another discussion area, the projects of establishing and operating nuclear power plants without carbon emissions, which are now frequently mentioned in the context of alternative energy resources perspective, are becoming attractive. The restructuring of nuclear power within the scope of nuclear electricity reactors as a base energy source without greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere has begun to be discussed intensively on the global agenda. The nuclear power rebirth or nuclear power resurgence perspective continues to evolve and deals with the licensing of nuclear power plants. Nuclear energy projections have started to become attractive due to the rapid increase in oil and natural gas prices every day. However, the establishment and operation of new generation nuclear power plants have high investment costs. In em, licensing processes cause disruptions because they are long. Therefore, governments are trying to enact various new nuclear energy incentive laws and regulations on issues such as “law on the establishment, operation and sale of nuclear power plants”. Those with existing nuclear laws and nuclear regulations try to overcome nuclear bureaucratic hurdles.

Another issue discussed regarding the Paris Agreement is; Why the USA withdrew from the agreement during the time of former President Donald Trump and why Turkey has not ratified the agreement even though it signed it.

It is not possible to reduce emission volumes without the participation of advanced industrialized countries, especially the USA. On the other hand, both the USA and other industrialized states have difficulty in reducing their emission volumes on the grounds that it will adversely affect established industrial enterprises. On the other hand, developing countries already have neither the technology nor the economy needed for investments in renewable and sustainable alternative energy sources. They are in need of financial aid from developing countries and industrialized and developed countries. Countries that industrialize and develop with fossil fuels are trying to continue to be the leaders of the global world with new technological alternative sustainable renewable energy sources, leading the world they pollute with their industry.

US President Donald Trump stated that he thought climate change was exaggerated and decided to withdraw his country from the Paris Climate Agreement on the grounds that the agreement was disadvantageous for the USA and would have a high cost to the economy. The United States formally withdrew from the treaty on November 4, 2020, as Article 28 of the treaty also allows the parties to withdraw after sending the United Nations notice of withdrawal from the treaty. It required the USA, which is a developed country, to provide funding aid to developing countries through the Green Fund and to greatly reduce the amount of coal it used a lot. Considering that the USA is one of the countries that use the most coal in the global context, it is clear that the Paris agreement is contrary to the national interests of the USA. Thus, the USA, the country that emits the most greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, was the only country to withdraw from the agreement. However, the new President of the United States of America, Joe Biden, decided to rejoin the Paris Climate Agreement as soon as he received his presidential authority, and the USA became a party to the agreement on February 19, 2021. In this case, it can be concluded that Biden will focus on modern high-tech nuclear power plants, which do not contradict the Paris Agreement, in his economic policies. In addition, considering that the promises made by the developed countries, which are party to the agreement, to the developing countries through the Green Fund, are not kept, it is possible that the USA will not fulfill the requirements of the Agreement in this sense and may want to exit the Agreement again. Because this is not the first time for the USA, it left the Kyoto Protocol, which it signed in 1997, in 2001.

When we look at Turkey, the situation is very different. In the first years, Turkey followed a long-distance approach and path towards the UNFCCC Convention. The reason for the delay in the ratification of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change was that Turkey was included in the Annex-I (list of advanced industrialized countries) and Annex-II (list of developing countries) to the Convention. Since Turkey is a member of the OECD, it had the status of developed countries and was included in both lists of the UNFCCC along with industrialized countries. By objecting to this classification, it was demanded that Turkey's special situation be taken into account. At the 7th Conference of the Parties held in Marrakech, Morocco in 2001, it was accepted that Turkey should be removed from Annex-II and included in a special status in Annex-I, taking into account Turkey's reservations. As part of the fight against climate change, Turkey signed the Paris Agreement on April 22, 2016 with the representatives of 175 countries. However, the ratification process of the Agreement was not completed. The Paris Agreement, unlike the UNFCCC, removed the classification of Annex-I, Annex-II and Non-Annex-I countries and brought a classification as "developed" and "developing" countries. However, a list showing which countries have come and which are developing has not been created. Since Turkey is included in both Annex-I and Annex-II lists, it did not become a party to the UNFCCC until 2003. A similar situation is also valid for the Paris Agreement, and since Turkey is among the Annex-I countries according to the Paris Agreement classification, it is considered as a developed country. In this case, Turkey will not be able to benefit from the technical and capacity building support to be given to developing countries and the $100 billion aid fund that will be provided as of 2020. Considering Turkey's special situation, it was important to include it among the developing countries. r. Because, Turkey will not necessarily have to undertake the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets that the Agreement requires for developed countries. The Paris Agreement seeks to reduce emissions. Since Turkey is a developing country, it has to increase industrial production and do this at the lowest cost, and renewable energy resources are not sufficient for Turkey either. It also needs economic support for the necessary investment in alternative renewable resources. For all these reasons, Turkey delayed becoming a party to the Paris Agreement and wanted to ratify it as a developing country and within the framework of its national contribution declarations. Turkey ratified the Paris Agreement on 7 October 2021. As a developing country, the amount of aid to be provided through the Green fund, when and how it will be given, and to what extent it will meet the investments required for renewable/sustainable alternative energy sources will also be the "nationally determined contributions" of our country to developed countries.

According to the results of the research, developing or underdeveloped countries give more priority to economic development than environmental protection. The main purpose of the people living in these countries is to fight poverty and improve their living conditions. In this context, they see climate policies that will limit their own development as uncertainty and also find it unfair. In addition, approaching the global climate problem, which threatens the life and even existence of millions of people with poverty, from the perspective of economic efficiency in the context of limited national interests, and producing solutions through risk and benefit-cost analysis is not solving the problem.
While framing the Paris Climate Agreement, it is necessary to determine the reasons for the objectives that are effective in the EU's struggle with the environment and climate change. In other words, is a clean planet for the EU a means or an end?

The EU's Objectives in the Paris Climate Agreement

•  One of the aims of the EU in the Paris Climate Agreement is to reduce the negative effects that EU member states may face due to the fact that Europe is in a geography that will be greatly affected by the negative effects of global climate change, to develop and implement policies and practices for adaptation to climate change and disaster risk reduction is to try to be active in the fight against climate change. The ratification of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and the Paris Convention on climate change in 2015 are concrete steps at the global UN level. Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction are among the main objectives of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Climate change affects many countries in Europe, almost every region, in different ways. The European Environmental Information and Observation Network/EIONET, as a European Union Institution, produces and evaluates regular and comprehensive data on the effects of climate change on Europe and how different regions will be affected. Evaluations made in the light of the data obtained are shared with policy makers at the national level in the EU and member countries. According to the reports and data published by the European Environment Agency, the European Environmental Information and Observation Network; Climate change harms biodiversity, ecosystems, important natural resources such as water and soil, and human health in Europe. Mainly energy and agricultural production, tourism, fishery, infrastructure, transportation, waste, etc. Many sectors are adversely affected by this situation. According to the results of the research, with the decrease in the resilience of European ecosystems to climate change, the capacity to meet basic needs such as food, clean air and water is gradually decreasing. Studies have shown that all member states of the European Union are in a vulnerable situation and regions are at different risks from each other. Western, Central and Eastern Europe is more affected by flooding because there are large rivers in these areas. Southern Europe has droughts and forest fires, while Western Europe has storms, avalanches and landslides because these regions are under the influence of high mountains such as the Alps and the Pyrenees. Extreme temperature increases in the southern parts of Europe have increased the risk of drought and desertification. European cities are at risk for the supply of water and other essential natural resources. Considering that the resilience of the urban population, and especially the aging population living in cities, to climate is gradually decreasing in the future, solution-oriented practices and policies such as climate-smart urban design and management, green infrastructure have come to the fore in order to overcome the negative effects. Due to climate change, the European energy system is also under threat. In case of an increase in temperature and drought, the demand for electrical energy will increase more due to the intense use of air conditioners in the summer months.
NS

climate change in forests in Europe causes disruptions. In Europe, serious adverse consequences of climate change are expected on ecosystems, biodiversity, infrastructure systems, food production, public health, economy, as well as political stability. For this reason, the EU especially highlights these issues in the Paris Climate Agreement and the Conferences of the Parties and tries to develop important strategic policies in various fields such as protection of critical infrastructure, environment, finance, agriculture, food security and coastal management.

•   Another one of the objectives of the EU in the fight against climate change in the Paris Climate Agreement is; It is to create alternative energy resources and diversity in order to ensure energy security due to the high level of dependence of EU member countries on external actors in energy.

For this reason, the EU's efforts and policies on climate change actually directly serve the goal of ensuring its own energy security. The EU is trying to ensure energy security more than climate change. The EU is the world's largest energy importer. While the world population is increasing on the one hand, the demand for energy resources has increased all over the world, on the other hand, with the depletion of fossil resources. Increases in demand have caused price increases and it is thought that the increase in energy resources prices will be more in the future and will have bad results. With this in mind, the EU is trying to improve its economic competitiveness capacity, which has been decreasing with its policies to combat climate change. With the technologies developed for the use of renewable energy, it is aimed to reduce the EU's dependence on foreign energy and make the EU produce at lower costs.

EU countries need more energy than they produce and buy oil from OPEC countries and gas from Russia, Norway and Algeria. Russia alone directly supplies about a quarter of the natural gas consumed throughout the EU. Moreover, Russia meets nearly all of the natural gas needs of Finland, Bulgaria and Hungary, along with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, known as the Baltic Triad. That is, it is highly dependent on foreign energy. EU member states are looking for ways to diversify their energy resources and supply channels in order to reduce their energy costs. In fact, the dams of Austria, the coal mines of Poland, the nuclear power plants of France, the oil wells of the North Sea and the gas fields of the Netherlands and Denmark show the diversity of energy in the EU. However, no matter how diverse the EU energy resources are, they are not enough. It seeks ways to reduce energy costs and sets long and important goals for the future. (EU, 2012).

The scarcity of fossil energy resources and their lack of homogeneous distribution have revealed the problem of energy supply security in EU countries. In addition, environmental problems and pressures of environmentalists have caused countries to turn to alternative energy sources. Especially in recent years, nuclear and renewable energies have been used as alternative energy forms. The most important nuclear energy producer is the USA, but the country with the highest efficiency from nuclear reactors is France. After the 1979 Three Mile Island and 1986 Chernobyl accidents, the issue of nuclear energy, which was viewed with suspicion, came to the fore again in order to achieve the goals of the Kyoto protocol, and studies were started for the construction of new nuclear power plants. Nuclear power plants have lower fuel costs and higher operating costs. Nuclear energy is more preferred in countries such as France where there are insufficient or no natural energy resources.

EU countries have also turned to renewable energy investments in order to diversify their energy resources while aiming to reduce high energy consumption in order to reduce their energy dependency. In recent years, EU countries have tended to consume fossil fuels from renewable energy sources (hydroenergy, solar energy, wind energy and biofuels, etc.) in energy consumption (Eurostat, 2017). The EU aims to reduce energy costs by trying to create an energy network through wind turbines and solar panels, which are renewable energy sources. But Europe's ever-increasing dependence on fossil fuels, as well as rising energy costs, cause the Union to focus on the cost of climate change policies rather than their benefits. Therefore, Germany gave up nuclear energy and turned to solar and wind energy, while France turned to nuclear energy and shale gas. The UK, which left the EU, is working on shale gas and nuclear energy. Spain produces large-scale solar and wind power (The Economist: 2014).

•  The most important of the EU's aims in the fight against climate change in the Paris Climate Agreement is its power in international politics and economic To ensure the signing of binding international agreements that will contribute to the relations of

The Paris Climate Agreement has started a new era in the international climate regime. The unanimous acceptance of the agreement by all countries and its entry into force in less than a year indicate that the regime has attained a much more inclusive and generally accepted character compared to the Kyoto Protocol period. With the US signing in 1997 but officially withdrawing from the Kyoto Protocol in 2001, the EU has become a leader in the fight against global climate change and has led to the signing of the Paris Climate Agreement. The Paris Agreement is an agreement in which the EU demonstrates its global leadership on climate change. The leadership provided by the Paris Convention has given the EU the capacity to set the agenda. By creating sustainable development policies in the fight against climate change; bringing issues such as protecting nature, protecting human health and quality of life to the agenda are the policies carried out in order to contribute to the power and economic relations of the EU in international politics.

In this sense, the Paris Climate Agreement, as an internationally binding agreement, is one of the instruments of the EU on the way to its goals. The meaning of the Paris Agreement for the EU is that it opens the door to important opportunities, especially in the fields of employment and growth. The transition to a low-carbon, resource-efficient economy requires a radical change in technology, energy, economy and finance as a whole. The EU's transition to a low carbon economy and its tendency towards renewable energy sources by reducing the use of fossil fuels contribute to the EU's goal of becoming the world leader in the field of renewable energy. It aims to ensure its own energy supply security by stimulating investments and innovations in the field of renewable energy.

In addition, a low-carbon and climate change-resilient European policy within the framework of the “EU Long-Term Vision for a Climate-Neutral Europe by 2050” adopted in November 2018 is directly geared towards the implementation of the Paris Agreement, and the target is to become Climate-Neutral by 2050. It is planned to become the first major economy in the world.

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