What are the Cornerstones of the Transition to the Modern State? Chapter 1

This study examines the philosophical foundations of the modern conception of the state. The aim of the study is to present the theories of the modern state. The theories of Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Emmanuel Sieyes are analyzed as modern state theories. 

The modern theory of the state first began with Niccolo Machiavelli's fiction of a secular worldly political power state free from divinity. Bodin then introduced the concept of sovereignty and revealed its qualities. Hobbes, on the other hand, developed the theory of social contract and provided a theoretical basis for the modern state. John Locke advocated the limitation of state power, Jean Jacques Rousseau the theory of popular sovereignty and Emmanuel Sieyes the theory of national sovereignty. 

The term modern state is generally used in political literature to refer to the political power structure that emerged in Europe in the late Middle Ages and early New Age as a result of the dissolution of feudalism and the breakdown of the influence of the church. The most important feature that distinguishes modern states, which began to be seen in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, from traditional states is its understanding of sovereignty and legitimacy. 

In the pre-modern period, it was believed that state power originated from God and that all power came from God. In this period, the legitimacy of the political power of the state was based on religious, mythological and traditional sources. With the transition to the modern understanding of the state, the idea that state power originated from society and that its legitimacy should be sought in society began to be processed. Thus, the source of political power of the state was secularized and its legitimacy was based on rational principles. 

The development process of modern states, which emerged in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and has continued to the present day, can be divided into two periods. The first stage of the modern state concept is the emergence of kings as the sole, absolute and indivisible power holders at the end of the Middle Ages as a result of the liquidation of the church and feudalism. This stage refers to a period when absolute monarchies were dominant in Europe. This period continued until the French Revolution of 1789. 

The period from the 1789 French Revolution to the present day is the second stage of the modern conception of the state. At this stage, the sovereignty belonging to the king was taken away from him and given to the society, thus the democratic character of sovereignty emerged. Thus, people, who had previously only been ruled, became the owners of superior commanding power with democratic sovereignty. 

However, over time, as developments have taken place in such a way that the powers that the sovereign can exercise are not unlimited but can be exercised within certain limits, a limited understanding of sovereignty, different from absolute sovereignty, has emerged. The type of political power of this period, in which sovereignty was limited and democratic qualities were acquired, is the nation state. In other words, the nation state is the name of the form that the modern state understanding has taken in the last two centuries. 

My aim in this research is to put forward the philosophical foundations of the modern conception of the state. The study aims to demonstrate that the transition from the traditional conception of the state to the modern conception of the state with the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Age is a result of the philosophical transformation that Europe experienced in this period.

The transition from the traditional conception of the state to the modern conception of the state with the New Age is not a phenomenon that can be evaluated independently of the transformation that Europe experienced in this period. From this point of view, the understanding of the modern state emerged as a result of the idea of creating a political organization in accordance with the new relations and developments created by the economic, political and social developments in a certain historical period. Let us now examine this issue step by step.

Period of Absolute Monarchies:

The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were the periods when the modern state theory emerged and was discussed. The modern state theorists of this period are Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes. What these three thinkers, who are considered the founders of modern state theory, have in common is that they provide a secular secular basis for political power and defend it in the context of absolute monarchies. 

Niccolo Machiavelli

Machiavelli appears as the most important personality in terms of cutting the ties with the Middle Ages. He does this by refusing to explain the phenomenon of political power with values that transcend politics such as religion, morality and metaphysics. Thus, political power establishes a new (secular/secular) system by leaving politics alone in explaining the phenomenon of the state. However; although it is mentioned that he established a new system; it is not possible to say that it is a system with a purely theoretical aspect. In fact, this is one of Machiavelli's most fundamental characteristics. 

Therefore, in reaction to this, he thought of political power as the process of worldly power and excluded the church from the worldly sphere. In this context, Machiavelli is the symbol of a real break with the medieval "Scholastic Philosophy" based on the formula "all power comes from God" (Omnis potestas a Deo). In this way, Machiavelli, who separated religious rules and politics decisively, placed political power on secular secular foundations. 

The works in which Machiavelli's political views are included are "The Prince" and "The Discourses". With these two works, Machiavelli made original and innovative contributions to political thought, and with these contributions, he is considered one of the most important founders of modern political state theory. Machiavelli's political views are quite different from those of his predecessors. Before Machiavelli, all political literature (from Plato and Aristotle to the Middle Ages and Renaissance) tried to explain political power-state relations in moral, religious, cultural and metaphysical terms that transcend politics. Machiavelli, on the other hand, separated the phenomenon of political power-state from morality, religion and metaphysics and placed it on a secular basis. Until Machiavelli, politics was intertwined with morality and religion. 

Machiavelli was the first thinker to advocate the unity of politics, morality and religion. According to Machiavelli, the main criterion of politics is to seize power and use it as long as possible. This is a lofty goal. All means are legitimate to realize this goal. Machiavelli justifies this by linking it to the criterion of accomplishing great deeds as follows:

"Everyone recognizes how praiseworthy it is for a ruler to keep his word, to act sincerely and not slyly. However, experience shows us that rulers who have done great things have not paid much attention to their promises and have skillfully deceived the people. In the end, they surpassed those who relied on truth." 

Machiavelli defines morality in politics with reason. According to him; politics works with interest. According to Machiavelli, the main criterion of interest in politics is to seize power and use it as long as possible. Therefore, actions and behaviors in the field of politics should be evaluated not according to the principles and rules of morality, but according to the principles and rules of politics itself. Therefore, the nature of politics should not be analyzed according to moral criteria, but according to success criteria. The general measure of politics is always success. Therefore, with Machiavelli, whether politics conforms to moral criteria and religious principles has lost its importance.

In Machiavelli, the aim is to seize, hold and expand power. Whatever needs to be done to realize this goal must be done. The basic measure here is success. A behavior is good if it serves the purpose of seizing, holding and expanding power. It does not matter whether this behavior is in accordance with social morality or religious rules. Because the state mechanism has its own system of values independent of morality and religion. Political behavior can also be characterized as good or bad according to this system of values. The goodness or badness of a behavior is measured by its effect on seizing, holding and developing power.

The first thinker to use the concept of "state" in its modern sense was Machiavelli. In his work The Prince, Machiavelli mentioned the word state in the sense of "a political institution that, as an organized power, is superior in its own region and pursues a conscious policy of ascension in its relations with other states". For this reason, Machiavelli is considered to be the founder of the modern conception of the state, which is characterized by the sovereignty of the country and the human community. The modern conception of the state emerged with the end of religious authorities' claims of ownership over worldly powers. Therefore, there is a close connection between the secularization of the political sphere and the emergence of the modern conception of the state. In terms of laying the theoretical foundations of modern (secular) political power, the biggest share belongs to Machiavelli. 

What makes Machiavelli the founder of modern political theory is his attempt to establish a world independent of religion, morality and metaphysics. He was the first thinker to use the modern concepts of state and sovereignty at the factual level, if not at the theoretical level. He characterized political power/state as absolute, unlimited, one and whole, but since he was not a theorist, he never considered its legitimacy and continuity. This is his biggest shortcoming as a historian. Jean Bodin is the thinker who overcomes this deficiency of his.

Tomorrow I will continue with Bodin and Thomas Hobbes.